Negatives of Television and Video Games - 728 Words

With television and video games entering a whole new level of popularity in the 2000s, serious and necessary questions need to be answered regarding the negative aspects of these new technologies. The technologies have perhaps caught people in such bewilderment and dazzle that the negatives have been given a blind-eye. The positives no doubt are countless, however whether they outweigh the negatives or not is another question. Nowadays, with TV programs becoming many and TV channels and digital entertainment enterprises becoming countless, the quest for originality has become tougher, to the extent that originality has perhaps been raised in status, to become even above quality and common human ideals. When we lose human ideals, our morals and our conscience, we have lost everything, which keeps us a part of civilization. We no longer become civilized and we take limitless freedom, which is disastrous for the health of society and each individual in it. Examples of such are the many television programs, which focus on celebrities, filtering unpleasant details from their lives to make them seem close to perfection. Doing such is extremely disastrous for many people, as believing some people are perfection, meanwhile they aren’t can cause distress for viewers, as viewers can then involuntarily start to perceive themselves as less than others. Also, this has drawn many people into total obsession of these celebrities. This obsession being very dangerous as many peopleShow MoreRelatedThe Negative Effects of Television and Video Games on Children544 Words   |  2 PagesAmerican children watch on average, 4 hours of television daily and play 19 hours of video games a week. Television and video games are filled with violence these days. Exposure to violence on the television, on movies, and on video games negatively effects children behavior. Children are likely to copy the violence that they see on T.V., especially if a good guy is the one using violence. If no consequences are shown for violent behavior on T.V. or in video games, children are more likely to imitate thatRead MoreEng 1011630 Words   |  7 PagesViolence in Music Videos and Music Lyrics has a negative impact on children. Music videos that expose profanity and sexuality are inappropriate and leave a negative impression on young children. Violence in music v ideos can cause health problem. Music videos that promote negative lyrics are affecting young children. Music lyrics with vulgar languages affect the development and well-being of young children. For example, the study author (Stone, 2009) found â€Å"that music with explicit referencesRead MoreHow Technology Can Benefit A Child s Cognitive Development1061 Words   |  5 PagesChildren use a lot of technology. They use technology whether they are using social media, using a learning program, or reading an electronic book. The truth is, that there are more positives than negatives when children use technology. There is fear that if children use too much technology they will not have proper development especially cognitively. This paper will show how technology can benefit a child’s cognitive development. One benefit is young children can learn how to read while using aRead MoreMedia Effects On Children And Adolescents1521 Words   |  7 Pagesin is all surrounding with media, people use the media every day and everything; such as watching television, using the computer, and talking on the phone. On the media we could learn and find out the information that we need. And we can also share our personal information on the media. Media gives us a lot of convenient in our life, but there are also some negative impacts. Media has a lot of negative impacts which it could be affected on children and adolescents. The article â€Å"Media and Risky Behaviors†Read MoreEssay about Effect of Media Violence on Children1275 Words   |  6 Pagesfive hours of television a day! Listening to music is also a time consuming pastime among children. With all of that exposure, one might pose the question, How can seeing so much violence on television and video games and hearing about violence in in music affect a childs behavior? Obviously these media have a big influence on childrens behavior: we can see it in the way they attempt to emulate their favorite rock stars by dressing in a similar style and the way children play games, imitating theirRead MoreMedia Violence And Its Effect On Society1184 Words   |  5 PagesIn recent years, many scholars have begun to examine the negative effects of media violence. There is a debate on whether negative effects directly derive from media violence. Because media violence has been proven to have a negative effect on society, this essay will argue that th ere needs to be more censorship on media violence. I will first examine the influence media violence has on mass shootings. Next I will discuss a study relating to dating violence, certain movies and shows encourage datingRead MoreImpact of Technologies on Teenagers1700 Words   |  7 Pageshave a long history. Some technologies were created a few years ago, while some technologies are comparatively new. Technologies have penetrated all spheres of human activities: education, politics, trade, medicine, and this list can be prolonged. Television and phones are considered to be the primary technologies which appeared in the life of human beings. New technologies were produces in great amounts. Nonetheless, people used those technologies to simplify the process of fulfilling domestic dutiesRead MoreMedia Violence: A Negative Influence on Young People A massive amount of violence is being1300 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Violence: A Negative Influence on Young People A massive amount of violence is being displayed in the media and has become harder to avoid. Violence is everywhere. We experience it in various ways, such as rap music, television, or first person shooter video games. We hear rap music and remember the vicious lyrics. We constantly watch celebrities commit crime on television and observe people being slaughtered multiple times a day. Youth can virtually do the slaughtering of the other charactersRead MoreNegative Impact of Media Violence on Children1704 Words   |  7 Pagesthese commodities were present few people considered them necessary for living. With the introduction of television in the middle of the century , mass media availability began to increase. By the year 1955 two-thirds of all homes in America were outfitted with a television set. This figure increased to around ninety-three percent by the end of that decade. So it is not surprising that today television and mass media are a part of virtually all Americans. The r ise in media availability of all sorts hasRead MoreThe Effects Of Television And Video Game Violence On Children899 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction The following paper will examine the negative effects of television and video game violence on children who watch and play these games. Speculation as to the causes of the recent mass shootings in American schools and other public places motivated me to pay more attention to violence on television and in video games and write this paper. Most of these horrible attacks on innocent people occurred by a teenager or young adult. Flipping through television channels, I started paying attention to

Trauma Teams And The Trauma Team - 1560 Words

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary trauma is â€Å"an injury (as a wound) to living tissue caused by an extrinsic agent.† The intrinsic agent could be a fall, assault, or a car accident that creates the trauma. Trauma â€Å"is the leading cause of death in the 1-44 year old age group.† Trauma teams were set in place to help reduce the number of deaths caused by trauma by having different multidisciplinary working together. This correlates to the build cohesive teams through mutual trust principle of mission command. Trauma teams apply mission command continually as they deal with the traumas coming in. The acuity of the traumas coming in determines if the trauma team will be activated. According to the North Central Texas Regional Advisory council, the most common traumas that require automatic trauma team response include: multisystem blunt trauma with unstable vital signs, penetrating injury of head, neck, chest abdomen, burns greater than 20% or involving face, airway, hands, feet, or genitalia, amputations, paralysis or other signs of spinal cord injury, flail chest, open or suspected depressed skull fracture, unstable pelvis or open pelvic fracture, two or more longbone fractures, and high energy events such as fall greater than 20ft, ejection from vehicle, death of occupant in same vehicle, bent steering wheel, auto-pedestrian impact, motorcycle or bicycle involvement and significant assault. All this different traumas involve different systems of the body. This isShow MoreRelatedThe Emergency Department Trauma Team1464 Words   |  6 Pages For the last two and half years in nursing school, I have always wanted to be part of the emergency department-trauma team. I had the privilege to work with the Arrow Head Regional Medical Center Emergency Department for the last 10 weeks with my clinical preceptor Ok Benseley. During the first couple of shifts I was unsure what and how I would present a change project to a unit that was already well organized. My preceptor and the nurse educator Jonathan Lee, told me to settle in first and thenRead MoreDr. Ellert And Stan, The Adhs Trauma Stakeholder Workgroup Essay927 Words   |  4 PagesDr. Ellert and Stan, The ADHS trauma stakeholder workgroup held its December meeting last week and I attended along with Dr. O’Neil. My notes are below. Please let me know if you see anything that raises issues. I think we continue to be okay but I have highlighted three issues where I’d like your attention. Here is a link to the most recent CME Requirement – The consensus is the trauma medical director’s CME should be â€Å"external to the facility.† As I understood the conversation, a doctorRead MoreBlood Culture Contamination Rates In The Emergency Department Case Study806 Words   |  4 Pagesand Resolutions for Improvement Blood culture (BC) contamination is a common, yet preventable problem for emergency departments (EDs) across the country (Self et al., 2014). Erlanger Hospital’s ED is no different and being the region’s only Level 1 Trauma Center, it is called to an excellent standard of practice. BC testing is a routinely applied intervention used to diagnose infections in symptomatic patients who arrive at the ED (Denno Gannon, 2013). BCs are essential as they help identify accurateRead MoreA Reflection On The Trauma Nurse973 Words   |  4 PagesThe purpose of this paper is to examine a situation where I have been in a leadership role. I will focus on an assignment where I was the trauma nurse early in my nursing career. Using the top five strengths obtained from the Strengths Finder 2.0 assessment, I will analyze how they helped to support my role as a leader. Analysis of Leadership and Followership Reflecting on my nursing career and trying to pick out a situation that would appropriately describe a leadership or follower situation, IRead MoreAnalysis Of Leadership And Followership. Reflecting On1183 Words   |  5 Pagesemergency department, I began to be nudged into the leadership role more often. Working in the resuscitation room gave me a better feeling of leadership amongst my peers. When you become the nurse in charge of resuscitation, running the codes and traumas, people look at you with a different expectation. As stated by Daft (2011) â€Å"Good leaders know how to follow, and they set an example for others† (pg. 6). Assuming the role of leader was easily accepted, since my co-workers had experienced my followershipRead MoreTriage Protocols In Pros And Cons1566 Words   |  7 Pagesphysicians, pre-hospital personnel, respiratory therapists and radiology. After completion participants completed a 16 question survey which was analyzed for participants percepti ons of the course. Furthermore 541 cases were reviewed from the hospital’s trauma registry reviewing length of stay (LOS), 6 months and 12 months before and after the implementation of RTTDC (Hlaing Zhu et al., 2011). Analysis of the data showed participants strongly agreed they gained knowledge from the course (18.8%), and agreedRead MoreA Social Worker At The Royal Bethlem Hospital997 Words   |  4 Pagesdirectly service users, working within multi agency team. I attended and wrote reports for CPA (Care Programme Approach) and Social Circumstances Report for, Mental Health Manager’s Hearing as well collating Placement Profile for patients to enables the Community Team to identify suitable future placement. I attended Mental Health Tribunal and Managers Hearing to present Social Circumstance Report. In particular, I liaised with patient’s community care Team, families, especially the children and significantRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of The Foster Care Youth Essay1038 Words   |  5 Pageshave been exposed to multiple forms of traumatic experiences, such as physical or sexual abuse, neglect, family and/or community violence, trafficking or commercial sexual exploitation, or sexual abuse, bullying, or loss of loved ones. Consequently, trauma experienced by children in foster care is often complex and left untreated permeant permanently effecting the overall growth and development resulting in lasting repercussions felt years later. Some examples of traumatic symptoms include behavioralRead MoreThe Impact Of Acnp On Trauma Care Patients1258 Words   |  6 PagesThe Impact of ACNP on Trauma Care Patients Role of the APN in improving patient outcomes The rapidly increasing sector of aging population and an implementation of the Affordable Care Act, which extends coverage to an additional 32 million of Americans, would culminate in the dire shortage of medical providers (Moote, Kleinpell, Todd, 2011, p. 452). Predicted shortage of health care workforce intensifies the interest in and need to understand better NP utilization, productivity, and unique valueRead MoreDuring The Last Clinical Rotation Of My Adult-Gerontology940 Words   |  4 Pages The combination of clinical expertise and advanced training is what make an Adult-Gerontology Acute Care Nurse Practitioner (AG-ACNP) so valuable to a multidisciplinary team. AG-ACNPs are polyglots; fluent in the language of physician, nurse, and patient. As a result, the AG-ACNP is the ideal leader on a interprofessional team to care for the most critically-ill. The ICU paradigm of care has shifted from provider focused to patient focused. AG-ACNPs have responded by providing high-intens ity critical

Nursing Hospital Administrator

Question: Discuss how you as a hospital administrator participate in the planning of a new hospital in an area servicing a population of 100,000 incorporating all the related aspects required of a hospital. Answer: Introduction This assignment aims to participate as a hospital administrator in the planning of a new hospital in an area servicing a population of 100,000 incorporating all the related aspects required of a hospital. In the present scenario, the patients know more and are well informed regarding the services of healthcare. Moreover, they want to be involved in the processes of medical care. This is the reason that they choose their doctor, make their individual decisions, and select hospital according to their own desire and convenience. More precisely, they demand care that is of a superior quality and a reasonable price. Today, the costs of healthcare are rising considerably. That is mainly due to the remarkable advances that have appeared in the equipment, technology and treatment. The individuals are glad that advanced treatment is currently available for different types of health problems. It is also apparent that when it comes to health and safety, cost is not an issue (Tompkins et al., 2010). That is specifically why individuals opt for good hospitals that encompass experienced doctors, advanced equipments and variety of services under a single roof along with overall quality care together with polite and helpful staff. The initial and necessary step to accomplish all these purposes involves a hospital, which is well planned and well designed. Constructing well-organized, efficient and cost-effective hospitals is the necessity of the present day (Carpman Grant, 2016). Concept of Planning In order to establish hospital, the initial step is forever a vision or a thought arriving in the mind of a person. The hospitals, which are successful, without exception, are constructed with the help of a good planning, design, and construction along with a good administration. The achievement of a hospital is usually measured by the excellence of patient care it offers and the effectiveness with which it work (Birnbach et al., 2010). In order to be successful, an enormous deal of planning and preliminary study is required for the construction of a hospital and must keep the following things in consideration: A new hospital must be designed in such a way that it meet the requirements of the individuals it aims to serve. It should be staffed with experienced and sufficient number of competent doctors, nurses and other healthcare professionals. The promoters must be attentive and assume responsibility for the construction of well-planned and well-designed hospitals that are proficient, efficient and cost-effective so that they will deliver quality and sufficient care to the population they serve (Jones, 2011). Guiding Principles for planning the facilities and services of a hospital 1. High quality care of the patients The high quality care of the patients can be achieved by the following: Appointing experienced and sufficient number of medical, nursing and other members of staff and offering essential facilities, equipment together with services of support. Establishing an organizational structure in which clearly defined responsibility and authority are assigned to every job, mainly jobs associated with the care of the patient. Medical staff should interact with each other and with the other professionals of healthcare. Continuous review of patient care Establishment and enforcement of standards in the patient care (Thompson et al., 2011). 2. Efficient community orientation Efficient community orientation can be achieved by the following: Governing board in which there are known and esteemed community leaders Extending programs and services of the hospital to the communities Ensuring the participation of the hospital in the programs of community, prevention of care , teaching of a good quality of healthcare along with the practice. Doctors, hospital administrators should provide assistance in the process of planning and implementation of community healthcare programs A public information program should be provided (Jrgensen, 2012). 3. Economic viability Economic viability can be realized by the following: Understanding the responsibility and accountability for a strong and feasible fiscal position, that will command the respect as well as confidence of the donors, investors and the community. A clear program for attracting and retaining experienced and enthusiastic nurses, physicians and other professionals in healthcare setting (Mestre et al., 2015). Sound Architectural Plans This can be accomplished by the following: Engaging early in the stage of planning a experienced architect who posses experience in designing and construction of the hospital Selecting a location that is easily available to population concentration, water, public transport, sewerage lines etc. and is large enough to meet the existing and expected needs and demands for road, access parking and future expansion Determining hospital size that is sufficient for diverse services, administrative as well as functional necessities of departments together with treatment and care of the patient Recognizing the significance of setting up of traffic patterns for movement of doctors, , patients, hospital staff, visitors, and effective transportation of drugs, food, linen and other supplies A plan that will avoid repetition of services Awareness to special services such as intensive care, operating rooms, obstetrics, outpatient, surgical and medical specialties together with the concepts of infection control and disaster planning (Bachouch et al., 2012). Conceptual and Basic Design The generations of ideas at the stage of conceptual study are translated into outlines, taking cognizance of every design criteria, in line with functional as well as spatial programs (Nguyen et al., 2014). Engineering Design Design detailing facilitates its analysis from the principles of basic engineering i.e. Specific requirement such as floor strength for medical equipment, optimized construction grids, elevators and openings are taken into account by civil design. All necessary services of drainage, ventilation water supply, fire fighting and air-conditioning systems are considered by the mechanical design. Cognizance of low and high voltage systems, fire-detection systems, emergency power supplies, telephone and padding systems and elevator control under electrical design IT consideration enables incorporation of state-of the art features into the system Waste management takes cognizance of potential quantum of wastes and incorporates suitable collection as well as storages, treatment and systems of disposal (Thompson McKee, 2011). Planning of equipments The selection of different types of equipments i.e. medical and clinical services in a variety of specialties, services associated with clinical support such as blood bank, and laboratories has significant bearing on every feature of engineering design. The particular concern is, the actual support services together with the Central Sterile Supply Department (CSSD), kitchen, laundry etc., given to prepare schedule of equipments according to the type of departments, organizing its logistics and planning the procedures of installation, testing and commissioning (Wurzer, 2013). Suppositions for building a Hospital for the next generation Alteration has become consistent in our surroundings and the rate of alteration is increasing, formulating the future more complex and difficult to predict The existing system of healthcare-operationally as well as economically is not sustainable and this constructs a mandate for alteration Noteworthy change or alteration will be essential. Incremental solutions would not bring about transformational change or alteration (Adida et al., 2011). Due to the existing condition of healthcare and the mandate for alteration, a riskier environment of making decisions subsists. Consequently, there is an insight that maintaining the status would minimize risk. Features of transformational alteration will encompass the following: Inclusivity and a requirement to look for contribution from thought of the future-oriented leaders and experts of processes. Incorporation that connect all constituents of the organization An approach based on a system and an incorporated plan to get outcomes. Accomplishment of goals exhibited by constructive and measurable outcomes The process of shifting towards a new state of the future would be evolutionarily; ultimately constructing an environment in which change or alteration is constantly embraced (Persson Persson, 2010). The process of planning for any project is as significant as the ultimate outcome due to the reason it by means of the process that buy-in to solutions is accomplished. Planning is lively in nature and it is based on the science of complex adaptive systems (CAS). The process of planning for a project of building a hospital offers a remarkable opportunity to cause transformational alteration or change to the stage from which the healthcare business is delivered (Hick et al., 2011). An effectual process of planning will direct to the environments or surroundings are: Competent and efficient Patient as well s family focused Flexible and adjustable Methods of planning and design Planning team and the process Team for assessment of needs The process of planning and design can be envisioned with the interaction of different groups of individual associated with the process (Elf et al., 2015). At the earliest stage, it requires an assessment team concerning the planners together with the end users like the staff of the hospital and the community ascertains an overall plan concerning the requirements, variety of services to be offered, the catchment area or the target population, the monetary viability of the project with the analysis of cost benefit and the scale of the hospital (Abdelaziz Masmoudi, 2012). Briefing team After the assessment of needs and the hospital size have been established, the briefing team consisting of engineers, architects, the staff members and the community sit together for the preparation of the key document or manuscript i.e., the brief design. It is concerned with the translation of requirements into activities, functions, distribution of space and any other information essential for the design (Carpman Grant, 2016). Design Team The team for designing consists of all the individuals involved to design the facilities, the members for producing the instruments for implementation of building, starting from initial analysis to the concluding designs with methodological specification, tendering manuscripts ort documents and comprehensive drawings of working together with the estimation of expenditure. This team primarily encompasses architects, engineers, surveyors, and staff of the hospital, the approving authority and the community (Ellen et al., 013). Construction team The team for construction comprises of architects, builders and engineers. This team executes the designs from the drawings that are approved along with the technical specifications within the given time as well as cost and create surface facility for commissioning leads to severe complications when they are not treated (Bines Jamieson, 2013). Commissioning team This team is responsible to hospital staff, commissions, obtains the furniture, equipments, and prepares them for their operation (Zilm, 2010). Planning team A large number of individuals would have given their input to the project as part of a team working as a whole together with the community by the end of the project. - The contractor/builder constructs the hospital in is physical appearance utilizing labor, materials and the equipments of construction - The procurement of members of staff together with the workforce forms part of the commissioning team, which is, concerned with the preparation of hospital for operation by the procurement of material as well the recruiting staff (Bines Jamieson, 2013). Roles of the team members In all the stages that are involved with the process of planning and design, each team member possesses the following roles: The health planner ascertains the requirements of the hospital, its responsibility with respect to the community along with the services it will provide. The functional planner ascertains the performance of various departments as well as the hospital. The financial planner ascertains the financial viability in terms of the project and is also responsible for the identification and allocation of funds associated with the project. The physical planner ascertains the association of the hospital with the town and the group of people it serves. The architect and the consultants of engineering offer proficient planning, design as well as management of the process of construction. The construction manager supervises the individuals and resources on location to make sure that the completion of project is within the stipulated time and budget. The user/client is the possessor and final user of the newly constructed hospital (Keys, 2016). Factors to be considered in locating a hospital The hospital should be within 20-30 minutes travelling time. In a district having good roads and sufficient transport facilities, this would indicate a zone of service with a radius of about 26 km. It should be linked with other institutional amenities like religious, tribal, educational and commercial centers. It must be free from the risks of water logging; hence, it must not be constructed at the lowest district points. It should be constructed in an area, which is free from any type of pollution, including water, air, land and noise pollution. It must be equipped with public utilities: electricity, water, telephone, disposal bins etc. In those areas in which these types of utilities are not available, the availability of substitutes must be established such as generators for current or electricity, deep well for obtaining water and radio communication in place of telephone (Arnolds Nickel, 2013). Criteria for Site Selection A coherent, step-by step process of selecting a site takes place only in ideal conditions. In a number of areas, site availability prevails over other logical reasons for its selection, and the arid architects of the planner are confronted with the work of reviewing whether a plot of land is suitable for constructing a hospital. In the situation of either selecting a site or evaluating adaptableness, the following things must be taken into consideration: topography, soil conditions, availability of utilities, natural calamities and limitations (Elf et al., 2015). Size of the Location The location in which the hospital is to constructed must be large enough for each of the planned requirements to be met and for some extensions envisaged within the future years. The hospitals in which there are around 150 beds must have single-storey construction if other parameters state that they must be constructed with multi-storey buildings (Escobar-Rodriguez et al., 2014). Topography It is concerned with the determination of form and space. It is easy as well as least expensive to construct a building on a flat terrain. It is difficult to construct on a sloping or rolling terrain and expensive too, but the outcome can be innovative an interesting; by utilizing the natural ground slope, the systems for disposal and drainage can be designed in an attempt to lower the costs of construction and maintenance (GneÃ…Å ¸ et al., 2014). Drainage The land must allow the uncomplicated movement of water distant from the location. A high community point is considered ideal. If in case it is not available and the location is at a point which is low, the following things must be assessed: - How the surrounding land and water channels can be utilized to shift water away from the location. - Whether the soil type permits the speedy absorption as well as disposal of water -The usage of additional technical means of making sure the drainage like the construction on platform or on stilts, or excavating temporary reservoirs At the time of deciding the level of ground floor of the buildings, it is necessary to protect against the impermanent flooding after a heavy downpour. The areas that are prone to usual flooding, it is essential to raise a ground floor, which permits for probable peak floods (Ribeiro et al., 2012). Conditions of Soil The conditions of soil assist in the determination of schemes of foundation. Preferably, the subsoil should be of a type on which conventional, economical structural design and schemes of foundation can be utilized. It is recommended to avoid swamps, water logged areas and former paddy fields (Copas et al., 2015). Utilities available The facilities of water, electricity and communication should be available. The areas in which these types of utilities are not available, the availability of substitutes must be established such as generators for current or electricity, deep well for obtaining water and radio communication in place of telephone. The facilities of healthcare are moderately ineffective in the absence of all of these facilities at the site in which the hospital is to be constructed (Buffoli et al., 2012). Limitations However, the site may be satisfactory in all the aspects, but it must be verified for potential constraints to its utilization: Does it possess a direct access from the road? Is it a contiguous piece with appropriate titles of ownership? The problems of ownership that are not solved can limit the complete use of a site. The sites having the issues of ownership must not be utilized (Van Dam, 2015). Master planning The master plan concerning a hospital is the foundation for the present as well as future decisions regarding the outline of the buildings together with the services, alterations in requirements as well as phasing (Hulley et al., 2013). It signifies the grouping and phasing of individual constructions and the modes of communication between them, the range and location of conveniences that are essential at different phases as well as directions and restrictions of possible expansion of future or modification of the hospital. Any error in placing constructions, sewer points, and access roads, facilities of parking and entry points on the location can limit opportunities of growth (Djalali et al., 2012). The engineering and architectural attributes of the project are developed within the master plan based on: Grouping major purposes such as medical services, wards, central supplies and admissions Establishing a suitable route of access foe uncomplicated orientation of visitors and patients, with particular emphasis on the individuals who are disabled. Offering scope for expansion of future, to deal with supplementary functions, increased number of beds and medical expertise, by making sure maximum communication between the different units of the hospital and services of support (Roy et al., 2012). The master plan encompasses two components: Determination of routes of circulation as well as corridor systems Location of components on the site with respect to one another The routes of circulation along with the corridor systems must be designed in such a way that the users can discover their way with least complexity (Broberg Edwards, 2012).The main loop of circulation must be apparent and the pecking order of secondary routes that consecutively break into negligible interchange paths must match with the hierarchy of the different units of the hospital they serve. The target of design should be simplicity; this lessens the needs for signs and enhances the quality of service. The positioning of elements together with the departments on a location should result in a most favorable interrelationship between the departments and offer space for expansion (Hulley et al., 2013). Zoning of elements on a site The departments that are closely associated with the community should be nearby to the main entrance: administration, emergency, outpatient department, family planning clinic and other supports of primary healthcare. The departments that receive pressure of work should be next contiguous to the main entrance: dispensary, X-ray, laboratories. In the interior zones or wards, in-patient departments should be constructed The nursery and delivery department must be separated from the operation theatre The areas of domestic service and housekeeping should be grouped in the area of service yard: Kitchen, laundry, maintenance, housekeeping, motor pool and storage. The staff facilities should be positioned on the outside edge next to public transport and roads: housing or quarters, staff dormitories. If there are any teaching facilities, it should be near to staff facilities as well as teaching areas and to public transport and roads; Training and educational components associated with primary health care, student areas. The mortuary should be in a special service yard having a cautious entrance and it should be distant from the nursery, ward block and out-patient department (Yousapronpaiboon C. Johnson, 2013). Departmental Planning and Design This segment deals with the common principles associated with planning and design. The comprehensive design should encompass an inclusive plan of accommodation of all the departments and should affirm the requirements of functional planning for all the activities to be carried out in each space (Frst, 2016). The different departments of the hospital can be grouped as follows: Outpatient department The design of this department of the hospital depends on the availability of medical staff for consultation, scheduling of consultations, the number of referrals from general units of health and general practitioners together with the tendency of the individuals to go the hospital. It may also be affected by the availability of the visiting doctors or more precisely specialists from a local base hospital, which may conduct expert clinics from time to time before a specialist refers a patient for the treatment (Hernndez-vila et al., 2013). The fundamental requirements of this department are uncomplicated and few: Waiting areas and reception Examination rooms Consultation rooms Treatment rooms Areas for staff and supplies Emergency Department This is a fast-paced department and requires a huge area, which is flexible and could be transformed into private areas when essential, typically by the usage of curtains on track around demarcated spaces. It is essential that the necessities for movement within the emergency department permit for variability, with speedy access to the X-ray, operating and other departments Kennerley de Waal, 2013). Due to the nature of the emergencies, it is suggested that if resources are accessible, beds be gathered and dutiful to specific kinds of cases of emergencies. Trauma and accident, fracture, pediatrics, gynecology and obstetrics cases need different procedures for administration and dealing with an emergency (Broberg Edwards, 2012). Administration block The administrative department is public-oriented but at the same time, it is private. Areas for accounting, business, cashiers, records and auditing, which have a practical relationship with the community, must be positioned near the main entrance of the hospital. However, the management Offices of the hospital can be located in the private areas (Conejos, 2013). Medical Record Room Well-maintained medical records are an important and crucial part of a proficient system of hospital. Every country has its individual legal requirement concerning the duration for which ten records should be maintained by the hospital. If it is feasible, there should be a creation of a full-scale computerized data bank in which all data associated with the patients of the hospital are maintained. This allows the speedy access to the previous records of the hospital in a database making the information obtainable for statistical utilization in research into the planning and design of the hospital, community health, planning of services of ambulance and use of drug. If the staffs of the hospital manually handle the medical records, sufficient space must be obtainable so that they can be preserved for the needed time (Ellen et al., 2013). This space should be present in an area that ensures that the records are not to be disclosed by any chance or until it is mandatory to do so. The be st site or location for constructing a medical record room is immediately nearby to the Admitting section for easiness of record filing of new patients and for the easiness of retrieving the records of the patients who are admitted more than once (Kennerley de Waal, 2013). Department for Radiology and imaging This department is concerned with diagnostic imaging. It is different from the departments in which radiation oncology and radiotherapy are performed. Units of X-ray, radionuclide and ultrasound scanners provide diagnostic radiology or diagnostic imaging (Turner, 2014). Laboratory services The modern medicine is more dependent on the services of the laboratory for the diagnosis, control and prevention of diseases. A central role is played by the pathology laboratories in the hospital and in the services that are associated with community health. Every hospital must comprise of a laboratory service under the supervision of a pathologist who is medically qualified (Andrade et al., 2012). An inclusive laboratory should encompass the following sections: Microbiology Hematology Morbid anatomy Clinical pathology (Titzer et al., 2014). Pharmacy The patients, particularly the outpatients can obtain drugs from the private pharmacies, if essential with the prescription of a physician. However, in several districts the hospital is the main source of obtaining the drugs in addition to the primary health centers. The staff of the pharmacy by taking advice from the physician would plan the selection and procurement of drugs that are not encompassed in the hospitals standard provision (Mestre et al., 2012). Blood bank The hospital should be provided with sufficient blood bank and particular consideration should be emphasized on the storage of blood in an appropriate manner. After correct testing procedures the supply of blood should be carried out from a centre of blood transfusion (Carpman Grant, 2016). Sterilization unit It is simple to arrange a separate unit for sterilization in the hospital. However, it is necessary to ensure that all equipments, dressings and instruments that come in association with the tissues of the patients are sterile (Adida et al., 2011). Operation theatre The design of operation theatres has turn out to be increasingly complex. The number of operation theatres required is apparently associated with the number of beds in the hospital. As a common rule, one operation theatre is needed for every fifty patients in general wards and for every twenty-five surgical beds (Thompson McKee, 2011). Intensive care unit This unit is for those patients who are seriously ill and require constant medical attention. Together with extremely specialized equipments that are intended to support breathing, control bleeding, toxemia and to prevent the patients from shock. This unit needs several services of engineering, in the form of medical gases, compressed air as well as power sources and a controlled environment. It is advised to locate this unit next to recovery room (Wurzer, 2013). Risks, Emergencies and Disasters The following three concepts should be taken into consideration in this process: It is necessary to prevent the problems through prior planning so that there is no need to give response to the problems as well as the events as they occur. It is vital that the investment of resources should take place in plans, individuals together with organizations to manage the risks before they turn out into disasters or emergencies. This expenditure can be significantly reduced if prevention and risk management is included at the early stages of development. If all the construction and plans take the hazards and risks into consideration, the additional cost of risk management will be small (Hulley et al., 2013). The range of probable risks that are faced by a facility and the variety of ways to deal with those risks is such that it is good to engage comprehensive knowledge and skills as probable to ensure an inclusive identification of risks or threats. An extensively based participation would stimulate a sense of possession or ownership in terms of the plans that are developed to deal with the potential risks. While dealing with the internal as well as external sources of risk, the group of individuals involved must differ accordingly. Those concerned with the internal consultation may be physicians, nursing professional and other staff of the hospital. Externally, the group of individuals and communities will depend on the local circumstances and situations that surround the facility. Similar to the building of a community, a hospital is a facility that has several stakeholders in its future. These are the individuals, who aspire to observe it and several of them may desire to participate to ensure the best performance in the future. For ensuring the cooperation as well as understanding of each aspect of risk and planning, there must be a majority of these groups representing the possibility of the process of planning (Ellen et al., 2013). Quantitative evaluations possess a tendency of neglecting the reality that emergencies, risks and disasters are societal issues, not simply a component of figures and costs. Qualitative explanation directs more willingly to flexible and dynamic solutions and remedies to decrease the impact of an emergency, disaster or risk. In addition, there are different problems in the estimation of numbers to the subjects that are not effortlessly appreciated. There could be an inapt flexibility for making decisions on extremely vague data. These assessments hardly ever respond to the problems or assist in deciding the actions that are needed to be taken (Ribeiro et al., 2012). Conclusion In the end, it can be concluded that the processes and roles should be clearly defined before the beginning of operational and facility planning of a new hospital as it will serve as a path for designing and implementation. Today, the costs of healthcare are rising significantly. That is mainly due to the noteworthy advances that have appeared in the equipment, technology and treatment. The individuals are happy that advanced treatment is at present available for different types of health problems. It is also evident that when it comes to health and safety, cost is not an issue. The stakeholders concerned with the design and construction of new facilities should have a shared understanding of each other respective language. The definition of common concepts is needed to reduce individual interpretation. The facility designs and operations must be equally supportive. The idea regarding the method of delivering care notifies operational planning. The design of a good facility enables t he plan of operation and supports the notion of care delivery. The external/internal policies as well as regulations must be influenced to promote development, mutual growth, progress and quality in patient care. The existing facilities must be optimized prior to embarking on constructing a new facility. Constant scanning of the environment or surrounding will recognize future trends that would create an impact on the project/processes. The trends can be integrated when probable and suitable, thus offering possible improvements in the care of the patients. Sufficient financial support should be integrated in the budget of the project along with time line. The priorities for the organization of the hospital should be based on the extensive strategic plan. Hence, by taking into consideration all these aspects, the individuals can integrate their knowledge on the planning of hospital and its related services in an efficient manner. References Abdelaziz, F. B., Masmoudi, M. (2012). A multiobjective stochastic program for hospital bed planning.Journal of the Operational Research Society,63(4), 530-538. Adida, E., DeLaurentis, P. C. C., Lawley, M. A. (2011). Hospital stockpiling for disaster planning.IIE Transactions,43(5), 348-362. Andrade, C., Lima, M. L., Fornara, F., Bonaiuto, M. (2012). Users' views of hospital environmental quality: Validation of the perceived hospital environment quality indicators (PHEQIs).Journal of environmental psychology,32(2), 97-111. Arnolds, I. V., Nickel, S. (2013). Multi-period layout planning for hospital wards.Socio-Economic Planning Sciences,47(3), 220-237. Bachouch, R. B., Guinet, A., Hajri-Gabouj, S. (2012). An integer linear model for hospital bed planning.International Journal of Production Economics,140(2), 833-843. Bines, J. E., Jamieson, P. (2013). Designing new collaborative learning spaces in clinical environments: experiences from a childrens hospital in Australia.Journal of interprofessional care,27(sup2), 63-68. Bines, J. E., Jamieson, P. (2013). Designing new collaborative learning spaces in clinical environments: experiences from a childrens hospital in Australia.Journal of interprofessional care,27(sup2), 63-68. Birnbach, D. J., Nevo, I., Scheinman, S. R., Fitzpatrick, M., Shekhter, I., Lombard, J. L. (2010). Patient safety begins with proper planning: a quantitative method to improve hospital design.Quality and Safety in Health Care,19(5), 462-465. Broberg, O., Edwards, K. (2012). User-driven innovation of an outpatient department.Work,41(Supplement 1), 101-106. Buffoli, M., Nachiero, D., Capolongo, S. (2012). Flexible healthcare structures: analysis and evaluation of possible strategies and technologies.Ann Ig,24(6), 543-52. Carpman, J. R., Grant, M. A. (2016).Design that cares: Planning health facilities for patients and visitors(Vol. 142). John Wiley Sons. Carpman, J. R., Grant, M. A. (2016).Design that cares: Planning health facilities for patients and visitors(Vol. 142). John Wiley Sons. Conejos, S. (2013). Designing for future building adaptive reuse. Copas, A. J., Lewis, J. J., Thompson, J. A., Davey, C., Baio, G., Hargreaves, J. R. (2015). Designing a stepped wedge trial: three main designs, carry-over effects and randomisation approaches.Trials,16(1), 1. Djalali, A., Castren, M., Hosseinijenab, V., Khatib, M., Ohlen, G., Kurland, L. (2012). Hospital incident command system (HICS) performance in Iran; decision making during disasters.Scandinavian journal of trauma, resuscitation and emergency medicine,20(1), 1. Elf, M., Frst, P., Lindahl, G., Wijk, H. (2015). Shared decision making in designing new healthcare environmentstime to begin improving quality.BMC health services research,15(1), 1. Ellen, J., Epstein, M., Strouse, T. (2013). Complete Self-Sufficiency Planning: Designing and Building Disaster-Ready Hospitals. Escobar-Rodriguez, T., Escobar-Prez, B., Monge-Lozano, P. (2014). Technical and organisational aspects in enterprise resource planning systems implementation: lessons from a Spanish public hospital.Enterprise Information Systems,8(5), 533-562. Frst, P. (2016). Administrative workplaces in healthcare: Designing an efficient and patient-focused environment.Journal of Hospital Administration,5(4), p68. GneÃ…Å ¸, E. D., Yaman, H., ekyay, B., Verter, V. (2014). Matching patient and physician preferences in designing a primary care facility network.Journal of the Operational Research Society,65(4), 483-496. Hernndez-vila, J. E., Palacio-Meja, L. S., Lara-Esqueda, A., Silvestre, E., Agudelo-Botero, M., Diana, M. L., ... Parbul, A. S. (2013). 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Integrating operations and adverse-event planning.Health facilities management,23(11), 39-42.

Socrates Essays (1092 words) - Socratic Dialogues,

Socrates Socrate's First Accusers and Athenian Law Of all confrontations in political philosophy, the biggest is the conflict between philosophy and politics. The problem remains making philosophy friendly to politics. The questioning of authoritative opinions is not easily accomplished nor is that realm of philosophy - the pursuit of wisdom. Socrates was the instigator of the conflict. While the political element takes place within opinions about political life, Socrates asks the question "What is the best regime and how should I live?" Ancient thought is riddled with unknowns and can make no such statement as "how should I live." The Socratic philosophy offers an alternative and prepares the way for the alternative of absolutes. This alternative is not without its faults. Socratic philosophy is plagued by a destructive element. It reduces the authoritative opinions about political life but replaces it with nothing. This is the vital stem from which the "Apology of Socrates" is written. Because of the stinging attack on Athenian life, and the opinions which they revere so highly, Socrates is placed on trial for his life. The question now becomes why and in what manner did Socrates refute the gods and is he quilty? Socrates, himself, speaks out the accusers charges by saying "Socrates does injustice and is meddlesome, by investigating the things under the earth and the heavenly things, and by making the weaker the stronger and by teaching others these things" (Plato, 19b;c). This is the charge of the "old" accusers. It is seen from an example in "The Clouds". Strepsiades goes to Socrates in order to learn how to pursuade his son by "making the weaker speech the stronger" (Aristophanes, 112). Why does Socrates remind the assembly about the old accusers? It appears improper for a man on trial to bring about his other 'crimes'. Aristophanes, in particular, is implicated by Socrates as an old accuser. "For you yourselves used to see these things i n the comedy of Aristophanes" (Plato, 19c). The poets helped to shape Greek culture. Poetry was passed on and perpetuated the city where thought constantly changed. Philosphy begins in debunking what the city thinks they know in order to refute the god. It is evident that Socrates is not guided by the gods of the city. Socrates says "it is not part of the same man to believe in daimonian and divine things" (Plato, 27e). Socrates is subtly admitting his guilt. Perhaps Socrates believs in gods, but if so, they are not the gods of the city. Socrates simply denies that he has had any part in celestial or subterranean inquiry - he simply speaks "elsewhere". Socrates goes on to say that those who do are reported to be atheists. However, Socrates says that "Zeus does not eveeen exist" (Aristophanes, 367). Socrates replaces Zeus with nature, the permanent and necessary things accessable to reason. This is an outrage to any Athenian. To deny the gods is to deny faith and ultim ately the authoritarian opinions on which their politics is based. Why does Socrates think that he is being unjustly punished? Chaerophon had told Socrates that the Pythian Oracle had said that Socrates was the wisest man. Socrates admits that "I am conscious that I am not wise, either much or little" (Plato, 20b). Socrates wonders what the riddle is and sets out to "refute the divination" (Plato, 20c). This is a prime example of Socrates' impiousness as is his statement in "The Clouds" where he states "we don't credit Gods" (Aristophanes, 248). He is attempting to refute the god at Delphi. Socrates tries to aid his own defense by charging that what he does is in devotion to the god. "Even now I still go around seeking and investigating in accordance with the god" (Plato, 23b). Socrates makes this brash statement yet it is unfounded and untrue because it is not a devine order for Socrates to pursue this line of investigation. In opposition, Socrates asserts that the da imonian did not oppose him. Socrates' impiety is not the only thing that resulted in histrial. Socrates was "the gadfly" stinging the city of Athens. When Socrates proposes that the god sent him on his quest, he set out to prove it wrong. In

Rambling and Run On Sentences

Rambling and Run On Sentences Rambling or run-on sentences are sentences that contain several independent clauses in a row, to the point that they sound clumsy and exhausting. In case you need to review, an independent clause is a phrase that could be a whole sentence on its own: I like eggs for breakfast.My sister prefers pancakes. Each of the phrases above can stand as a sentence on its own, but if you wrote them (and others) this way in an essay, the overall message would sound choppy. I like eggs for breakfast. But my sister prefers pancakes. So our mom makes both. And we can each have what we want. To keep our writing from sounding too choppy, we can connect sentences to become two or more independent clauses in a single sentence. These are correctly connected by a coordinating conjunction. I like eggs for breakfast, but my sister prefers pancakes. Our mom makes both, so we can each have what we want. See how that sounds better? They do sound better, but we have to be careful not to overdo it! We cant put too many independent clauses in one sentence, or we have our run-ons or our rambling sentences. Tip You can remember the coordinating conjunctions by memorizing the word FANBOYS.F forA andN norB butO orY yetS so Rambling Sentences A rambling sentence may appear to follow the technical rules of grammar in places, but the sentence just sounds wrong because the thought rambles from one topic to another. The passage below is a single sentence that contains many independent clauses: I was happy to walk down the aisle as a bridesmaid in my sister’s wedding, but I was very embarrassed when I stumbled in the middle of the ceremony, for when I recovered, I looked up and saw my sister and I thought she was going to faint, because I could see her standing in the doorway waiting to begin her own walk down the aisle, and her face was all white, she looked like she was going to throw up. Much of this looks correct  because the various clauses are connected correctly (except one comma splice). Don’t hesitate to break up sentences that ramble: I was happy to walk down the aisle as a bridesmaid in my sister’s wedding. However, I was very embarrassed when I stumbled in the middle of the ceremony, especially when I recovered. I looked up and saw my sister and I thought she was going to faint. I could see her standing in the doorway, waiting to begin her own walk down the aisle. Her face was all white and she looked like she was going to throw up! Run-On Sentences In a run-on sentence, the clauses are not properly connected with correct punctuation  or coordinating conjunction.   Problem: Every time I go to the grocery store I run into the same girl her name is Fran and she is a friend of my cousin.Solution 1: Every time I go to the grocery store, I run into the same girl; her name is Fran, and she is a friend of my cousin.Solution 2: Every time I go to the grocery store, I run into the same girl. Her name is Fran, and she is a friend of my cousin. See how the solutions improve the sentence? Problem: I try not to use pens that tend to leak Ive lost a few backpacks because of leaky pens.Solution 1: I  try not to use pens that tend to leak. Ive lost a few backpacks because of leaky pens.Solution 2: I  try not to use pens that tend to leak, yet Ive lost a few backpacks because of leaky pens.

6 Tips for New, First-Year MBA Students

6 Tips for New, First-Year MBA Students Being a new student can be difficultno matter how old you are or how many years of school you already have under your belt. This can be especially true for first-year MBA students. They are thrown into a new environment that is known for being rigorous, challenging, and quite frequently competitive. Most are nervous about the prospect and spend a great deal of time struggling with the transition. If you are in the same spot, the following tips may help. Tour Your School One of the problems with being in a new environment is that you dont always know where youre going. This can make it hard to get to class on time and find the resources you need. Before your class sessions start, be sure to take a thorough tour of the school. Familiarize yourself with the location of all of your classes as well as the facilities you might usethe library, the admissions office, the career center, etc. Knowing where you are going will make the first few days a lot easier to get through. Establish a Schedule Making time for classes and coursework can be a challenge, especially if you are trying to balance a job and family with your education. The first few months can be particularly overwhelming. Establishing a schedule early on can help you stay on top of everything. Buy or download a daily planner and use it to track everything you need to do each day. Making lists and crossing things off as you complete them will keep you organized and help you with your time management. Learn to Work in a Group Many business schools require study groups or team projects. Even if your school does not require this, you may want to consider joining or starting your own study group. Working with other students in your class is a great way to network and get team experience. Although it is not a good idea to try to get other people to do your work for you, there is no harm in helping each other work through difficult material. Depending on others and knowing that others depend on you is also a good way to stay on track academically. Learn to Read Dry Text Quickly Reading is a huge part of business school coursework. In addition to a textbook, you will also have other required reading materials, such as case studies and lecture notes. Learning how to read a lot of dry text quickly will help you in each one of your classes. You shouldnt always speed read, but you should learn how to skim text and assess what is important and what is not. Network Networking is a big part of the business school experience. For new MBA students, finding time to network can be a challenge. However, it is very important that you incorporate networking into your schedule. The contacts you meet in business school can last a lifetime and may just help you get a job after graduation. Dont Worry It is easy advice to give and hard advice to follow. But the truth is that you shouldnt worry. Many of your fellow students share the same concerns. They are nervous too. And like you, they want to do well. The advantage in this is that you are not alone. The nervousness you feel is perfectly normal. The key is to not let it stand in the way of your success. Although you may be uncomfortable at first, your business school will eventually begin to feel like a second home. You will make friends, you will get to know your professors and what is expected of you, and you will keep up with the coursework if you give yourself enough time to complete it and ask for help when you need it. Get more tips on how to manage school stress.

Manipulating Data Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Manipulating Data - Essay Example It is the result of an old code that is modified over the years plenty of times. Another aspect is that changing one part of the code would have unpredictable effects on all the other parts of the program, just as a bowl of spaghetti where pulling one can affect all the other strands. Thus the complex structure is named after spaghetti. Spaghetti code is caused mainly by inexperienced programmers following their mandates and creating a complex program which is being modified by several other people previously. Structured programming however decreases the chance of spaghetti code (Dixit, 2007, p. 92). The structured programming was a method formed in 1966 as a logical programming method which is a precursor to the object-oriented programming. This programming method is aimed to improve the quality, clarity, and development time of computer programs through the extensive use of block structures and subroutines instead of simple tests such as GOTO statements resulting in spaghetti code which makes it difficult to maintain and follow (Agarwal, 2009, p. 253). Modular programming has been functioning since the 1970s as a technique which subdivides a computer program in various other sub-programs. It separates the computer programs into individual and independent modules. It is a separate software component which is used with many other applications and functions in the system. The functions which are similar are grouped together while the separate functions are grouped as separate units. Object-oriented programming can be used with modular programming as it allows multiple programmers to work on divided programs independently (Mitchell, 2003, p. 239). Object-oriented programming is the method which is most commonly used today. It provides a programming model based on objects as it integrates the code and data by using objects. An object can be the abstract data type which has a state and behavior both. These objects can also be like real

Write a paragraph Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Write a paragraph - Essay Example Nash equilibrium has its implications both positive and negative. Positively, each player has the advantage of getting the expected payoff given what the opponent plays. Negatively, this strategy is not applicable in all cases. This is because there can be pure strategy normative expectations equilibria which are not Nash equilibria. The prisoner’s dilemma is an example of such a case scenario (Julian & Wolfgang, 2000). Nash equilibrium may not be Nash equilibrium at all in the event that one would like to have a little bit of extra credit. This is based on the fact that it places one in compromising scenarios in which it leaves the player with no option other than not opting for not being part of the whole process. In a bar, the goods and services on sale are not returnable and so once consumed it is as good as gone. This will constantly leave the owner of the bar at a loss since there is no positive payoff in the sense that he will always stand a chance of losing in all the possible outcomes (Julian & Wolfgang,

Country Analysis Essay Example for Free

Country Analysis Essay India is the third largest economy in the world as regards to its purchasing power. If effective measures are taken it can be the third largest economy after the US and China. Although India has much potential in terms of economic advancement there are vital issues that need to be addressed for instance overpopulation, environmental degradation, ethnic and religious strife as well as extensive poverty. This paper will provide general information about the country for instance it’s political, economic, social and culture organization, economic and trade indicators, specific reasons why its market is attractive, potential and pitfalls in international management, and contemporary issues that may support-impede international management. A brief history. India is located in the southern Asia and it borders the Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal. It is between Burma and Pakistan. Its early history dates back to the 19th century when Britain had the political control of all the Indian land. During the first and the second world wars the Indian soldiers played a significant role. The Indians resisted the British control over their land and this led to their independence in 1947. Significant leaders that led in the non violent resistance include Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. (www. state. gov). The region was divided into two comprising of the secular Indian state and the Muslim state of Pakistan. The two countries went into war in 1971 and the Eastern Pakistan became a separate nation of Bangladesh. The state of Kashmir is however a cause of dispute between the two countries up to date. Political organization. India declared itself a republic in January 1950 and it set a constitution that would guide its undertakings. The constitution was keen in ensuring justice, liberty and equality. It was also made flexible enough to incorporate the social as well as economic changes should they arise. In ensuring democracy prevailed it first held its general elections in 1952 and since then election are held after every five years. India is a Union that comprises of 28 States and seven centrally administered Union Territories. (www. state. gov). Every one above eighteen years of age and is an Indian citizen has the right to vote according to the provisions of the constitution. Fundamental Rights of every Indian citizen include the freedom of speech, expression, belief, assembly and association, migration, and choice of occupation or trade. Discrimination on grounds of race, religion, creed or sex is consequently avoided through the above provisions. India has a form of parliamentary democracy, it has a bicameral parliament and the sovereignty rests ultimately with the people. The elected officials in the parliament are responsible in making important decisions regarding the country. India has a Council of States which consists of not more than 250 members. 12 members are nominated by the President of India while the rest are elected. The vice president oversees the Council of States which is also known as Rajya Sabha. An important aspect regarding the Council of States is that it is not subject to dissolution and a third of its members retire at the end of every second year. Nominated members have a special knowledge in areas for instance literature, science, arts as well as in social services. There is also the Lok Sabha or House of the People which consists of 545 members. 530 of these are directly elected from the 25 States and 13 are from the seven Union Territories. Two of the members are nominated by the President and they act as representatives of the Anglo-Indian community. The President of India is also the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. (www. state. gov). He is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament that is the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha and the legislatures of the nation’s constituent States. The President holds office for five years term but he can be re-elected. However, the President does not on his own initiative exercise any constitutional powers. The Council of Ministers which is headed by the Prime Minister is the one responsible for that. Election of the vice president is between the members of both houses and the one with majority support in the Lok Sabha becomes the prime minister. The prime minister advises the president on the ministers to appoint and as long as the minister has support from the parliament he can continue to enjoy his term in the office. The judiciary is independent of the executive and it has the role of safe guarding the constitution of the land. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal but each state has its own high court. The current head of state who is also the president is Mrs Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the head of government or the prime minister is Manmohan Singh. (www. state. gov). Economic. The GDP or the purchasing power parity as at 2007 was at $2. 965 trillion while the GDP per capita was at $2,700. The composition of the GDP according to the sectors was as follows; agriculture contributed to 16. 6%, industry 28. 4% and the services sector was 55%. The labor force was 516. 4 million with agriculture registering the highest percentage at 60% the service sector was second at 28% and industry contributed 12%. The unemployment rate in 2007 was 7. 2% and the population below poverty line was 25%. The inflation rate or the consumer prices in 2007 was 5. 9%. The government budget was as follows; revenues were $145. 2 billion while expenditures were at $182. 4 billion. The public debt both the federal and state debt accounted to 58. 8% of GDP. Agricultural products that are produced in India include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry and fish. Relevant industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software. (CIA). In terms of trade India has been fluctuating for instance from 2005 to 2008 goods and services in terms of the percentage of GDP has shifted from 20. 2, 22. 7, 21. 2 to 20. 6. Likewise the inflation in this period was 4. 2, 6. 2, 6. 4 and 5. 2. Australian trade relationship in 2007 was as follows; exports to India accounted to a tune of 5. 5% of the total share recording a growth of 5. 4. Imports from India were 0. 8% of the total share which was a 14% total growth. In total the trade accounted for 3% of the total share with a growth of 6. 5%. Major exports to Australia include non monetary gold, coal, copper, ore and wool. India imports pearls and gems, electric plants, jewels and medicaments. The services exported to India from Australia include education related as well as personal travel and they attribute to 3. 8% of the total share while the imports are 0. 9% of the total share and the include computer services and personal travel. Other export destinations include the US which account for 15. 4%, United Arab Emirates 9. 5% and China 6. 4%. (CIA). India can increase its GDP by increasing the production of the goods and services that it has a competitive advantage in. The population as at July 2008 according to CIA was at 1,147,995,898. The age structure was as follows 0-14 years attributed to 31. 5% of the total population with 189,238,487 males and 172,168,306 females. 15-64 years were 63. 3% of the total population of which there were 374,157,581 males and 352,868,003 were females. Those aged 65 years and over comprised of 5. 2% of the total population with 28,285,796 males and 31,277,725 females. The population growth rate is 1. 578% with a birth rate of 22. 22 births/1,000 and a death rate of 6. 4 deaths/1,000 population. The total infant mortality rate was 32. 31 deaths/1,000 live births with males comprising 36. 94 deaths/1,000 live births as females comprised of 27. 12 deaths/1,000. Life expectancy at birth for the total population is 69. 25 years and males register a life expectancy of 66. 87 years as that of females is 71. 9 years. The total fertility rate is 2. 76 children born per woman. (CIA). Among the significant activities that have an impact in the country’s economy is agriculture which is both traditional as well as modern. The service sector and modern industries also have a significant impact on the country’s economy. A large proportion of the labor force is in the agriculture and this is risky as the sector is prone to many fluctuations in the market. To make India attractive to foreigners as an effort of boosting its economy the government has reduced unnecessary controls that would hinder foreign trade and investment. Allowing foreign investment on key areas like the telecommunications will be critical in promoting economic advancement in India. For the sensitive sectors like agriculture imposition of tariffs has the effect of reducing the number of people venturing in it. The country’s economy has registered a 7% growth within a decade and it has been able to reduce the poverty levels. In 2006 it was able to achieve an economic growth of 8. 5%. The high population can be of positive effects to the economy in the sense that it can be exploited as potential labor that is an important factor of production. By using the educated labor force it has risen to become a major exporter of software services as well as software workers. Through the economic expansion the country has been able to reduce its federal deficit at a remarkable rate. However the strong growth blended with easy accessibility to credit as well as a booming real estate precipitated inflation that was a cause of inflation. To control the inflation the central bank applied monetary policies like hiking the interest rates to slow down the credit growth. Social and culture organization India’s culture is unique although it is very diverse for instance there are over 40 languages. Indians are very friendly and this is good as it can have a positive effect on the manner at which they relate with foreigners. They are also very respectful to all and employers have good relationships with their employees. India is a resourceful country especially as it is known to provide its expertise regarding the construction of cement plants to the airports as well as to the railway systems. It has programs geared to ensuring that developing countries are provided for with feasibility and detailed technical evaluation studies. The program is effective in the sense that it provides support in training personnel in areas like agriculture as well as small scale industries. India is also very committed to ensuring that it promotes unity between the developed as well as the developing countries towards the new economic order. (www. dfat. gov. au). India has been firm in its stand of not interfering with internal affairs of other countries or nations. It however advocates for the adherence of the dignity of human beings. Regarding its position on disarmament it is highly committed to ensuring that the horrors of terrorism do not cause harm or destruction to mankind. To this effect it has joined other countries in banning nuclear weapons. Potential and pitfalls in international management and solutions. Major pitfalls in the country’s economy include the lack of privatization of government owned industries as that would increase efficiency and accountability. The populist pressures from the government are a major reason behind the lack of privatization of state owned industries. Major steps should also be taken so that the number of people living below the poverty line is reduced. The issue of unemployment is also an important one that should be well addressed. Encouraging people to be self employed as well as providing the appropriate tools will be a step forward in eradicating unemployment. Another critical issue that should be well addressed is the issue of a balanced rural urban divide. There is a problem in India where by approximately 70% of the population live in the rural areas or villages and this affects the pace by which rural urban growth takes place. (Panda and Gupta, 2004). A balanced development is what will see the Indian economy thrive. To be successful in business it will be appropriate to enhance the education system in India. This will be a step forward in ensuring that there is improved skill development. It is also critical to focus on skills development, improved governance as well as forging partnership in the private as well as public sector in the provision of infrastructures. Water is very essential and its scarcity ought to be effectively addressed. The biggest challenge that India faces is the population growth which will have a stressful impact on the countries infrastructures. There is an urgent need to control the population growth as an effort of trying to reduce the adverse effects that it would bring to the economy. To promote sustained growth economic reforms ought to be put in place so that the challenges can be well addressed. Fiscal discipline will be vital. International business is affected negatively by the fluctuations in the markets. The government ought to focus on those sectors that the economy is worst fairing in like health as well as in education. To further address the issue of unemployment it is critical to reform the labor laws so that more job opportunities are created. (Phansalkar S. 2005). Although agriculture plays an important role in the countries economy there is need to reduce over dependence. Reorganizing it in a manner that will promote the introduction of new technologies that would reduce the over reliance on climate for instance irrigation would also be vital. In an effort to reform the financial sector it will be appropriate to privatize some public sector banks as such a move will encourage efficiency and effectiveness. (Leung K and White S, 2004). To attract and retain Australian investors in India it has to ensure that its political system does not jeopardize with the investors activities. There have been cases where other foreign investors like US companies have preferred to close down instead of fighting in courts over legal requirement issues. Enhancing the structural systems will be a necessary step if investors are to be preserved in the country. Irrational tax policies as well as other forms of trade barriers need to be addressed as they act as a disincentive to trade and investment. (timesofindia. indiatimes. com). Advancing the level at which the infrastructure is being developed by increasing the finances put aside for the same will be critical in encouraging Australian investors. Enhancing the political reforms geared towards improving stability, privatization and deregulation as well as land reforms. An Australian based company can find the Indian market attractive or one with many opportunities. India is modernizing its infrastructure especially the transportation sector like the airports. This implies that there will be huge opportunities in infrastructure development like in roads, constructions, power plants, nuclear plants and air modernization. There is a considerable stable political environment that will not have adverse effects on businesses in India. (Phansalkar S. 2005). It also has a stable currency and the market is one of the biggest democratic markets with a huge middle class and this will be necessary for the company as it will provides for labor as well as potential market. The skilled labor can be tapped or exploited to provide labor for the foreign based company. There are minimal restrictions of entry to the Indian markets and the Australian based company will not face many challenges when trying to venture. References: CIA. The World Fact Book. India. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in. html Kwok Leung and Steven White. 2004. Handbook of Asian Management. Birkhauser Publishers. Panda and Gupta. 2004. Mapping Cultural Diversity within India: A Meta-analysis of Some Recent Studies. Global Business Review. 5: 27-49 Phansalkar S. 2005. Opportunities And Strategies In Indian Business: Preparing for a Global India. Sage Publishers. India. Recent economic indicators. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://www. dfat. gov. au/geo/fs/inia. pdf Swaminathan S Anklesaria Aiyar. 2001. What makes MNCs quit India? Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://timesofindia. indiatimes. com/articleshow/1602986123. cms Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. 2007 Background Note: India. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454. htm

A Comparison of Macbeth and Oedipus the King Essay -- compare contrast

A Comparison of Macbeth and Oedipus Rex  Ã‚   The objective of this essay is to compare the Shakespearian tragedy "Macbeth" to the Greek tragedy, "Oedipus Rex". Although the plays share similarities, it will be seen that the fall of Macbeth is very different from that of Oedipus. Macbeth's downfall is due to his own personal decisions while the downfall of Oedipus is due to fate and the will of the gods. In Greek tragedy plot was always emphasized over character; everyone wore masks. These masks would seem to mask a person's character. This would make the character seem more universal. The mask-wearing protagonist lacks individual personality and character. This makes catharsis more relevant because the protagonist is not as individual but more universal; they could be anyone. Macbeth is an individual person; he has no mask. This makes catharsis seem more irrelevant because Macbeth is more of on individual than Greek protagonists and therefore the audience doesn't feel that Macbeth is a representation of humanity and themselves. Instead they would set him apart as an individual person and therefore catharsis wouldn't apply as much. Greek tragedies all feature some kind of religious aspect. The gods bring about the protagonist's downfall in "Oedipus Rex". Yet Shakespeare's production of "Macbeth" is not religious. Macbeth isn't portrayed as being religious in any way. However, Oedipus strongly believed in the Greek gods and they carved out his fate as proclaimed by the oracle. The Greeks had no understanding of the way that the world works compared to what we, or even Shakespeare, now know. Volcanos were blamed on the gods because the Greek's didn't know the cause. We now have scientific explanations for volcanoes... ...of the effect of catharsis. When I read Oedipus Rex I didn't feel purged of my fears of existence because I don't believe that our lives are controlled by the will of fate. Catharsis is more relevant to the Ancient Greeks than to us because of the different belief system; we have one good, caring, all-powerful God and they have many gods who don't really care about the humans that much. I think that Shakespeare hasn't tried to apply catharsis to his tragedy as much as the Ancient Greeks did to their tragedies because he doesn't make the characters as universal as the Greeks but he gives them individualism by removing the masks and giving each character a personality. Works Cited: Shakespeare, William. â€Å"Macbeth.† The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. New York: Longman, 1997. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1991.

World History to 1500

Hominid- this is any creature of the family Hominidae or Primates and only one species exists today, Homo sapiens or human beings. The family most closely related to the family today is Pongidae or the anthropoid apes that include the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orangutan. Believing that they all came from a common ancestral line during the Late Miocene epoch period and the characteristics that distinguish hominids from the pongids are the erect posture, bipedal locomotion, rounded skulls with larger brains, small teeth and behavioral characteristics such as communication through language. The oldest known hominid genus is Australopithecus. This type was two legged and had an opposable thumb and there was evidence that they were capable of primitive tool making. The most significant physiological differences between the hominids and the pongids are how they adapted differently for different environment and the most was anatomically. Hominids had changes in the pelvis, femur and food; whereas the pongids developed physically for swinging by the arms, such as in trees. Paleolithic Era- This period is also known as the Stone Age. This is a period when humans began using rudimentary chipped stone tools. It has been divided into two levels the lower and the upper periods. At sites dating from the Lower Paleolithic Period, approx. 2. 5 million to 200,000 years ago simple pebble tools have been found in relationship with the remains of what may have been the earliest human ancestors. Around 700,000 years ago the hand ax appeared. The arrival of the Upper Paleolithic Period, which came about 40,000 years ago, brought about the regional stone tool industry. These industries are characterized by the greater complexity, specialization, and variety of tools types by the coming of a distinctive regional artistic tradition. The two forms of art known to the modern world are small sculptures and monumental paintings, incised designs and drawings on the walls of caves. Most of the cave drawings that survived in quantity are in Eastern Europe and parts of Spain and France. Neolithic Era- Also known as the New Stone Age and is known for the stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding. It dates back to the last 10,000 years of earth history. This period is known for the environmental or climatic changes the earth went through to become the earth we know today. During this period is when men became herdsmen and cultivators and the beginning to change or modify their environment. Social structure became more complex in response to problems and ways of dealing with situations. Animal domestication as well as agriculture was very important features to this era. Humans lived in more stable, more or less permanent, villages and were able to support complex social structures and organizations. Agriculture and animal husbandry developed independently in several regions of the Old and New Worlds through the natural process of evolution.Ap World History Units 1-3 Study Guide Three Craft Industries- This has to do with the final stages of cultural and technological development in prehistoric times. Stone tools are shaped by polishing or grinding and the society is dependent on domesticated plants and animals. It is also characterized by permanent villages with pottery and weaving beginning to show up. Chapter Two: Mesopotamia- Known as the land between the Tigris and Euphrates in western Asia, it is better known as one of the cradles of human civilization. There is evidence of an early settlement dating roughly to about 10,000 B. C. It is evident that this society began as rootless hunter-gatherers to a culture based on husbandry, agriculture and permanent settlements. Trade with other regions also was abundant because of the metals and precious stones in burial sites that are not known to the region. Irrigation techniques, pottery and other crafts, and building methods based on clay bricks were developed to a new level and elaborate religious cults evolv ed. Two very important features developed out of this era and they are the birth of the city and the invention of writing. Hammurabi’s Code- The most complete collection of Babylonian laws written during the reign of Hammurabi during the 1st dynasty of Babylon. It was his legal decisions that were collected at the end of his reign and written on a stele. There are 282 laws that deal with economic provisions, family law, criminal law and civil law. The existing text is written in Semitic and was discovered at Susa in 1901 by Jean-Vincent Scheil. The code was advanced far beyond tribal customs and did not recognize blood feud, private retribution or marriage by capture. Epic of Gilgamesh- Tales told of a Mesopotamian hero, a king. It is said to be the odyssey of a king who did not want to die. The stories and poems were written about Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk in southern Mesopotamia sometime during the first half of the 3rd millennium B. C. There are no historical evidence for the exploits given in the poems and epics. The Ninevite version of the epic begins with a prologue in praise of Gilgamesh, part divine and part human, the great builder and warrior, knower of all things on land and sea. In order to curb Gilgamesh’s seemingly harsh rule, the god Anu caused the creation of Enkidu, a wild man who at first lived among the animals. Enkidu was then brought into the ways of city life and traveled to Uruk, where Gilgamesh waited for him. It was this man and Gilgamesh who went on to live in the tales known as the Epic of Gilgamesh. Sumer- Is the site of the earliest known civilization and is located in the southernmost part of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers (Southern Iraq). It later became known as Babylonia. It is believed to first be settled between 4500 and 4000 B. S. by a non-Semitic people who did not speak the Sumerian language. The inhabitants are known as Ubaidians and were the first civilizing force in Sumer, draining the marshes for agriculture, developing trade, and establishing industries that included weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry and pottery. After the Ubaidian immigration to Mesopotamia, various Semitic peoples infiltrated their territory, adding their cultures to the Ubaidian culture and creating a high pre-Sumerian civilization. Assyrian Empire- It was an empire of the northern Mesopotamia that became the focal point of one of the great empires of the ancient Middle East. It was located in what is now known as northern Iraq around Mosul. Assyria was a dependency of Babylonia and later of the Mitanni during most of the 2nd millennium BC. But it emerged as an independent state in the 14th century B. C. The state was finally destroyed by a Chaldean-Median coalition in 612-609 BC. The people were famous for their cruelty and fighting. They were also known for their monumental builders with their craft that can be seen in archaeological sites at Nineveh, Ashur, Nimrud, and Khorsabad. Hebrews- While the Assyrians and the Persians struggled for empire, the Hebrews or ancient Jews, evolved spiritual concepts that still permeate Western society. Although the Hebrew were politically and culturally unimportant, a people who produced neither art nor science, their chief literary product, the Old Testament, was fundamentally influencing to both Christianity and Islam and still is a compelling force on the modern world. Chaldean Empire- was located in southern Babylonia or modern southern Iraq. Chaldea is first mentioned in the books of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II who reigned 883 to 859 BC and though earlier documents referred to the same area as the Sealand. In 850 Shalmaneser III of Assyria raided Chaldea and reached the Persian Gulf, which he called the Sea of Kaldu. On the accession of Sargon II to the Assyrian throne, the Chaldean Marduk-apla-iddina II ruler of Bit-Yakin seized the Babylonian throne and despite Assyrian opposition, held it from 721-710. He finally fled and Bit-Yakin was placed under Assyrian control. With this decline of Assyrian power, a native governor, Naborpolassar, was able in 625 to become king of Babylon by popular consent and to inaugurate a Chaldean dynasty that lasted until the Persian invasion of 539 BC. The prestige of his successors, Nebuchadrezzar II and Nabonidus was so that Chaldean became synonymous with Babylonian. Phoenicians- They were merchants that occupied the region known today as Lebanon with adjoining parts of modern Syria and Israel. It is believed that the Phoenicians probably arrived in the area about 3000 BC. Beginning in the 9th century the independence of Phoenicia was threatened by the advance of Assyria and in 538 the rule was passed on to the Persians. This country was later taken by Alexander the Great and in 64 BC was merged into the Roman province of Syria. They were known as sea-traders and colonizers. By the 2nd millennium they had influence that stretched along the coast of the Levant. Phoenician exports included cedar and pine wood, fine linen from Tyure, Byblos, and Berytos, cloths dyed with the famous Tyrian purple, embroideries from Sidon, wine, metalwork, and glass. Their transit trade was vital to the era. In the artistic products of Phoenicia, Egyptian motifs and ideas were mingled with those of Mesopotamia, the Aegean, and Syria. Ivory and wood carvings became their specialty and their goldsmiths and metalsmiths work is also well known. They used cuneiform writing but also came up with their own script which the Greeks later adopted. Their religious beliefs were nature based. Sargon of Akkad- Was an ancient Mesopotamian ruler that reigned 2334-2279 BC and is one of the earliest of the world’s great empire builders, conquering all of southern Mesopotamia as well as parts of Syria, Anatolia and Elam. He established the region’s first Semitic dynasty and was considered the founder of the Mesopotamian military traditions. Sargon was a self made man of humble beginnings, a gardener. He was found as a baby floating in a basket on the river. His father and name were unknown and his mother was thought to be a priestess. The event that gave him power was the defeat of Lugalzaggisi of Uruk. Because Lugalzaggisi had already united the city-states of Sumer by defeating each in turn, Sargon became king over all of southern Mesopotamia. Indo-European migration- While Egyptian civilization flourished behind the back drop of sand and sea, huge changes were taking place in the ancient Near East, changes that would leave their mark on Egypt. These changes involved enormous and remarkable movements of peoples, especial peoples speaking Semitic and Indo-European languages. The original home of the Semites was probably the Arabian Peninsula. Some tribes moved into northern Mesopotamia, others into Syria and Palestine and still others into Egypt. Although two great waves began around 2000 and 1200 BC, these migrations were usually sporadic and extended over long periods of time. Babylonian Empire- Although the empire of Sargon was extensive, it was also short lived, and it was the Babylonians who united Mesopotamia politically and culturally. The Babylonians were Amorites, a Semitic people who migrated from Arabia and settled in the Sumerian city of Babylon. Babylon enjoyed an excellent geographical position and was ideally suited to be the capital of Mesopotamia. It dominated trade on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, so that all commerce coming from Sumer and Akkad had to pass by its walls. It also looked beyond Mesopotamia. By following the Tigris, Babylonian merchants traveled north to Assyria and Anatolia. The Euphrates led the merchants to Syria, Palestine, and the Mediterranean. The city grew great because of its commercial importance and because its power was soundly based. Hittites- For the civilization of the ancient Near East the most important of these migrations were those of the Hittites and two unrelated groups, the Hurrians and Kassites. Neither the Hurrians nor the Kassites were Indo-European names. Indo-European or not, all three peoples were barbarians by Near Eastern standards, and their arrivals were marked by destruction. Around 1595 BC, the Kassites brought down the Babylonian kingdom and established their own rule there, while the Hurrians created the kingdom of Mitanni in the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris. The Hittites settled in central Anatolia and soon spread their influence south to Syria. The Hittites adopted the cuneiform script for their own language. Hittite kings published law codes, just as Hammurabi had done. Their art has Mesopotamian borrowing to create something of their own. Chapter Three: Kingdom of Kushan- Was a ruling line of descent from the Yueh-chih, a people that ruled over most of the northern Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia during the first three centuries of the Christian Era. The Yueh-chih conquered Bactria in the 2nd century BC and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which was that of the Hushan’s. A hundred years later, the Kushan Chief Kujula Kadphises secured the political unification of the Yueh-chih kingdom under himself. Art produced during the Hushan dynasty from about the late 1st to the 3rd century AD in an area that now includes parts of Central Asia, northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Kushans fostered a mixed culture that is best illustrated by the variety of deities invoked on their coins. At least two major stylistic divisions can be made among artifacts of the period; imperial art of Iranian derivation and Buddhist art of mixed Greco-Roman and Indian sources. Kushan artwork is stiff, hieratic and frontal, emphasizing the power and wealth of the individual. Hyksos- Shortly after 1800 BC, people whom the Egyptians called Hyksos, which means Rulers of the Uplands, began to settle in the Nile Delta. Although the Egyptians portrayed the Hyksos as a conquering horde, they were probably no more nomads looking for good land. Their entry into the delta was probably gradual, and generally peaceful. The Hyksos invasion was one of the fertilizing periods of Egyptian history and introduced new ideas and techniques into Egyptian life. They brought with them the method of making bronze and casting it into tools and weapons and brought Egypt fully into the Bronze Age culture. This culture made the production and use of bronze implements basic to society. Bronze tools made farming more efficient than ever before and used bronze armor and weapons as well as horse drawn chariots. They created the composite bow which was made of laminated wood and horn. It was far more powerful than the simple wooden bow and revolutionized Egyptian warfare. Akhenaten- Was a pharaoh between 1367-1350 BC whose thoughts dwelt on religion rather than conquest. Nefertiti, his wife and queen, encouraged his religious fever. They were monotheists who believed that the sun god Aton, whom they worshipped, was universal, the only god. All other Egyptian gods and goddesses were frauds and the royal pair forbade their worship. The religious notions and the actions of Akhenaten and Nefertiti were in direct opposition to traditional Egyptian beliefs. Akhenaton’s attack on the old gods affected all Egyptians, for the old gods were fundamentally important to the afterlife of human beings. Akhenaton’s monotheism was imposed from above and it failed to find a place among the people. One of the major reasons for Akhenaton’s failure is that his god had no connection with the past of the Egyptian people, who trusted the old gods and felt comfortable in praying to them so when Akhenaten died his religion died with him. Bantu migration- It is generally agreed that some one-third of the continent today occupied by the Bantu-speaking peoples was until approximately 2000 years ago, the dominion of other groups mainly Pygmies and Bushmen and the causes and itinerary of the subsequent Bantu migration have attracted the attention of several anthropologists. It is speculated that the expansion of the Bantu was associated with their acquisition of certain Malaysian food crops such as banana, taro and yams, which spread westward across the continent at about the time that the migration is thought to have begun. These crops enabled them to penetrate the tropical rain forest of equatorial Africa and spread across the southern part of the continent. A more widely held view is that the migratory route lay eastward, across the southern Sudan and then south, past the great lakes of the northeast. Chapter Four: Varna-jati system- Is the Hindu Cast system. In Hinduism’s sacred Sanskrit texts rank all people into one of four categories called varnas, which are associated with certain occupations. Most people accept the varna categories as fundamentally essential elements of their society. All of Hindu India is hierarchically ranked according to these four basic castes. In actual practice each of the four categories is further subdivided and stratified. To add to the complexity of the Indian caste system, the order in which these sub-castes are ranked varies from one region to another. These local sub groups, known as jati, are local family groups that are strictly endogamous. All members of a jati, who share a common social status, are expected to behave in ways appropriate for that jati. A person’s jati commands his or her strongest loyalties, serves as a source of social support and provides the primary basis for personal identity. So the jati serves as the important social entity in traditional Hindu society. Aryans- they were a people who, in prehistoric times, settled in Iran and northern India. From their language the Indo-European languages of South Asia are descended. The Nordic or Germanic peoples came to be regarded as the purest Aryans. Harappan society- Also known as Indus Valley Civilization and is the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. The civilization is known to have comprised two large cities. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and more than 100 towns and villages, were each more than 3 mile in area and their outstanding magnitude suggest political centralization a practice for which there are analogies in Indian history. The Indus civilization apparently evolved from the villages of neighbors or predecessors using the Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture with sufficient skill to reap the advantages of the spacious and fertile Indus River. The best known artifacts of the Indus civilization are the number of seals, generally made of steatite. Significant contrasts between the Indus and the Mesopotamian cultures extend to the tool types of the two regions. Beads found in Mohenjo-daro give evidence of a clear link to Mesopotamia, Crete and Egypt. Hinduism- The beliefs, practices and socio-religious institutions of the people known as Hindu. They are principally the peoples of India and parts of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Sikkim. The belief evolved from Vedism, the religion of the ancient Indo-European peoples who settled in India during the 2nd millennium BC. Hinduism constitutes a complex but largely continuous whole; and because it covers the whole of life, it has religious, social, economic, literary and artistic aspects. They consider their ancient texts sacred and collectively they are known as the Vedas. Chapter Five: Xia Dynasty- Early Chinese dynasty in 1766 BC mentioned in legends but not much else and is also known as Hsia Dynasty. According to legend the founder was Yu, who was credited with having engineered the draining of the waters of a great flood and was later, identified as a deified lord of the harvest. He made rulership hereditary in his family and was the first Imperial dynasty in China. Shang Dynasty- Also known as the Yin Dynasty and was the successor to the legendary first or Xia/Hsia Dynasty. The period of the dynasty’s rule has traditionally been dated 1766-1122 BC. Shang China was centered in the North China Plain and extended as far north as modern Shantung Province and westward through present Honan Province. The king appointed local governors and there was an established class of nobles as well as the masses whose chief labor was in agricultural. Jade carving became advanced during the Shang Dynasty. Ceremonial weapons of jade were made as well as jade fittings for actual weapons. Zhou Dynasty- Also known as the Chou Dynasty and ruled ancient China for almost a millennium creating the distinctive political and cultural characteristics that were to be identified with China for the next 2,000 years. The Chou co-existed with the Shang for many years until one of the Zhou family members made a plan to conquer the Shang in about 1111, which took several years to win. During this dynasty China changed from one of the more backward areas of the civilized world to one of the most advanced. Iron, ox-drawn plows, crossbows and horseback riding were all introduced. Large scale irrigation and water control projects were also instituted for the first time greatly increasing the crop yield of the North China Plain. This is also known for the time of Confucianism, Taoism and legalism. Chapter Six: Olmec- The first elaborate pre-Columbian culture of Meso-America. It’s most important centre was in what is now the southern Vera Cruz and Tabasco region of the Mexican Gulf Coast. The first evidence of the remarkable Olmec art style appears about 1150 BC. Between 1100 and 800 BC this Olmec stylish art influenced the Valley of Mexico to the Republic of San Salvador. These influences were the symbols of political empires, of a trading network, or of a religious cult. The ancient Olmec society was complex and non-egalitarian. Olmec stylistic influence disappeared after about 800 BC. Teotihuacan- Also known as The City of the Gods and is the most important and largest city of pre-Columbian central Mexico. The earliest inhabitants of the region of what was to become the city at about 400 BC and its formal planning as a metropolis dates to about the beginning of the Christian Era. Their culture and cultural influences spread throughout Meso-America. About 650 or 900 BC Teotihuacan was sacked and burned by the invading Toltec. The area of the city encompassed eight square miles and in addition to dwellings places, great plazas and temples also had palaces of nobles and priests. Maya- Meso-American Indians that occupy southern Mexico, Guatemala and northern Belize. Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. They practiced agriculture, built great stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper, and used a form of hieroglyphic writing, that have been deciphered. As early as 1500 BC the Maya had settled in villages and had developed a primitive agriculture based on the cultivation of corn, beans and squash. The rise of the Maya to greatness began about 250 AD and what is known as the Classic period. At the height of the civilization there were more than 40 cities with each having a population from 5,000 to 50,000. Chapter Seven: Cyrus the Great- Was a conqueror between 590-580 BC who founded the Achaemenid Empire that was centered on Persia and made up the Near East from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River. He is also known as a tolerant and ideal monarch who was called father of his people by the ancient Persians and in the Bible as the liberator of the Jews held captive in Babylonia. His persona in history has him being more than a great man who founded an empire, instead he was known for his great qualities that are expected of a ruler. He was not only a great conqueror and administrator; he had a place in the minds of the Persian people similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites. He is most known for freeing the Jewish captives in Babylonia and allowing them to return to their homeland. Sasanids- An ancient Iranian dynasty evolved by Ardashir I between the years of conquest AD 208 and 224 and was destroyed by the Arabs during the years 637 and 651. Zoroastrianism became the state religion under Sasanian rule and the government became centralized with provincial officials directly responsible to the throne and roads, city buildings and even agriculture were financed by the government. Under the Sasanians Iranian art experienced a general renaissance. Seleucids- An empire that at its greatest stretched from Thrace in Europe to the border of India. It was created out of the remains of Alexander the Great’s Macedonian Empires by its founder, Seleucus I Nicator. Seleucus was one of Alexander’s leading generals and became governor of Babylonia in 321, two years after the death of Alexander. The Seleucid Kingdom was a major center of Hellenistic culture, which maintained the presence of Greek customs and manners over the indigenous cultures of the Middle East. The kingdom began losing control over large territories in the 3rd century BC. Zoroastrianism- It is the ancient pre-Islamic religion of Iran that survives still today in isolated areas and more prosperously in India where the descendents of Zoroastrian Iranian immigrants are known as Parsis or Parsees. Founded by the Iranian prophet and reformer Zoroaster in the 6th century BC, this religion contains both monotheistic and dualistic features and influenced other major Western religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Chapter Eight: Confucianism- A way of life that was created by Confucius in the 6th and 5th century BC and has been followed by the Chinese people for over 2 thousand years. It has been the substance of learning, the source of their values and their social codes. It has been viewed as philosophy and a religion. It affects the daily life and culture of the Taoists, Buddhists and Christians in China before the Communist regime. Legalism- School of Chinese philosophy that was created around 475-221 BC by the philosopher Han Fey Tzu and was the basis for the first Chinese dynasty. They believe that political institution should be modeled in response to the realities of human behavior and that men are inherently selfish and short sighted. But that social harmony could not be assured through the recognition by the people of the virtue of their ruler, but only through strong state control and absolute obedience to authority. They want government to prescribe punishments and rewards for specific behaviors and increase the power of the ruler. Daoism- Also known as Taoism it is the Chinese Philosophy and its fundamental concept believes that it is the â€Å"Correct Way† or â€Å"Heaven’s way†. In the Confucian tradition, Tao signifies a morally correct path of human conduct and is limited to behavior. The concept takes on a metaphysical sense transcending the human realm. The absolute Tao defies verbal definition, but language can make suggestions that may lead to an intuitive or mystical understanding of this fundamental reality. It began sometime between the 8th and 3rd centuries. Taoists view life and death as simply different stages or manifestations of the Absolute Tao and consequently advocate a life in accord with nature. The serenity of such a life stands in sharp contrast to the life of public service advocated by Confucius. Qin Dynasty- Also the Ch’in Dynasty 221-226 BC and was the first great Chinese empire and also where the name China came from. This dynasty established the boundaries and basic administrative system that all subsequent Chinese dynasties were to follow for the next 2,000 years. The Ch’in Dynasty left two architectural monuments of massive proportions, one the Great Wall of China, which actually connected sections of a number of existing short walls, and the other a great palace for the first emperor. Its most important artistic contribution may have been the simplification and standardization of the emerging Chinese language. Han Dynasty- The second great Chinese Imperial dynasty and was considered the model for all other later Chinese Dynasties. Han Dynasty created what is now considered Chinese culture of today. The dynasty was founded by Liu Pang, later Kao Tsu 256-195 BC. The Han copied the highly centralized Ch’in/Qin Dynasty’s administrative structure, and divided up the country into a series of administrative areas ruled by centrally appointed officials and developed a salaried bureaucracy in which promotion was based on merit. Han also adopted a Confucian ideology and emphasized moderation and virtue. It was so successful that this dynasty lasted longer than any other. The first major stone tomb sculpture in China was created in the Han period and lifelike clay figurines of people and animals also were created. The Shang dynasty discovered lacquer, but it was the Han that brought its lacquer work to such perfection that some of its lacquered wine cups in perfect condition have been excavated from water filled graves. Chapter Nine: Jainism- It is a religion and philosophy of India founded in about the 6th century by Vardhamana, it is centered on protest against the orthodox Vedic, or early Hindu, ritualistic cult, its earliest sect rebelled against the idea of the practice of taking life that was prevalent in the Vedic animal sacrifice. It does not believe in the creator god and its central core is no injury come to any living thing. And man can become perfect through a monastic and ascetic life. Mauryan Empire- The Mauryan Empire was in ancient India around 321-185 BC and was an efficient and highly organized autocracy with a standing army and civil service. This bureaucracy and its operations was the model for the Artha-sastra (â€Å"Treatise on the Aims of Life† work of political economy that is similar to the tone and scope of Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince†). Gupta Empire- Were rulers of the Magadha state in northeastern India, later Bihar. They maintained an empire over northern and parts of central western India from the early 4th to the late 6th century AD. The Gupta era produced the decimal system of notation and great Sanskrit epics and Hindu art and contributed to the science of astronomy, mathematics and metallurgy. Ashoka- He was the last major emperor in the Mauryan dynasty of India and a Buddhist follower, his reign was from 273-232 BC and his faith furthered the expansion of that religion throughout India. After a bloody conquest of the Kalinga country on the east coast he renounced armed conquest and adopted a policy he called â€Å"conquest by dharma†. To spread the word of dharma he made them known orally through announcements and engraved them on rocks and pillars. He went to the rural areas to preach his teachings. The only glory he wanted was to lead his people along the path of dharma and he build hospitals for men and animals, but his strongest points were to the services to Buddhism. Buddhism- A religion and philosophy founded by Siddhartha Gautama in northeast India in the 5th century BC. It spread from India to central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. Buddhism has played an influential role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of much of the Eastern world. The Buddha or the â€Å"Enlightened one† died in northeastern India between 500 and 350 BC. He was born into royalty but was shocked by the inevitability of sickness, old age and death; he renounced his family life in order to wonder as an ascetic in search of religious understanding and a way of release from the human condition. He instructed his followers in the dharma and a path between a worldly life and extremes of self denial. Four Nobel Truths- The essence of Buddha’s early preaching was said to be the Four Nobel Truths: 1. life is fundamentally disappointment and suffering; 2. suffering is a result of one’s desires for pleasure, power and continued existence; 3. o stop disappointment and suffering one must stop desiring; and 4. the way to stop desiring and thus suffering is the Noble Eight-Fold Path, right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness and right concentration. Chapter Ten: Minoan Society- This was known as the Bronze Age civilization of Crete that flourished from 3000 to 1100 BC. Its name comes from Minos either a dynastic title or the name of a particular ruler of Crete who has a place in Greek legend. Minoan pottery has been found throughout the eastern Mediterranean. One of the most familiar features of Minoan civilization is the bull symbol known through the Greek legend of Minotaur and depicted in the brightly colored frescoes on the palace walls at Knossos. Cyclades, the islands around the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea, is similar to that of Minoan Crete, which according to Greek tradition, exercised hegemony over them. Mycenaean Society- The Mycenaean’s entered Greece around 2000 BC and settled in central Greece and in the Peloponnesus, the peninsula that forms the southernmost part of Greece. Mycenaean civilization was utterly unlike anything the later Greeks evolved. The political unit of the Mycenaean was the kingdom, not the polis. The king and his warrior aristocracy stood at the top of society. The symbol of the king’s power and wealth was the palace, which was also the economic center of the kingdom. Within its walls royal craftsmen fashioned jewelry and rich ornaments, made and decorated fine pottery, forged weapons, prepared hides and wool for clothing and manufactured the goods needed by the king and his retainers. The Mycenaean kingdoms were in touch with each other and with the Bronze Age culture of the Minoans in Create, but these contacts were usually violent. They were a consistently warlike and restless people. Peloponnesian War- This war lasted a generation from 431-404 BC brought in its wake fearful plagues, famine, civil wars, widespread destruction and huge loss of life. As the war dragged on old leaders like Pericles died and were replaced by men of the war generation. In Athens the most prominent of this new breed of politicians was Alcibiades, a aristocrat, a kinsman of Pericles, and a student of the Philosopher Socrates. Alcibiades was brilliant handsome, and charming, all of which made him popular with the people. He was also self-seeking and egotistical; a shameless opportunist, his first thoughts were always for himself. One positive development that grew out of the Persian and Peloponnesian wars was the beginning of historical writing. The father of history, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor and as a young man traveled widely. He migrated to Athens which became his intellectual home and participated in the colonization of Thurii in southern Italy where he died. Alexander the Great- The figure of Alexander loomed over the Hellenistic period and still cast its shadows today. Some scholars have seen him as a high minded philosopher; his bloody and savage campaigns in the East seem the work of a ruthless and callous conqueror. Yet for the Hellenistic period and for Western civilization in general what Alexander intended was less important than what he actually did. Alexander was instrumental in changing the face of politics in the eastern Mediterranean. His campaign swept away the Persian Empire, which had ruled the East for over two hundred years. In its place he established a Macedonian monarchy. More important in the long run was his foundation of cities and military colonies. The result of his campaign was to open the East to the coming of Hellenism. Antigonid Empire- This was the ruling house of ancient Macedonia from 306-168 BC. Antigonus Gonatas became king of Macedonia and established the Antigonid dynasty, which ruled until the Roman conquest in 168 BC. His resilience and hard work gave to Macedonia a sound and durable government. Ptolemaic Empire- The Ptolemies in Egypt made no effort to spread Greek culture and unlike other Hellenistic kings they were not city builders, they founded only the city of Ptolemais near Thebes. At first the native Egyptian population, the descendants of the pharaoh’s people, retained their traditional language, outlook, religion, and way of life. Initially untouched by Hellenism, the natives continued to be the foundation of the state: they fed it by their labor in the fields, and they financed its operations by their taxes. Under the pharaohs, talented Egyptians had been able to rise to high office, but during the third century BC the Ptolemies cut off this avenue of advancement. Ever more tightly they tied the natives to the land and made it nearly impossible for them to leave their villages. The bureaucracy of the Ptolemies was so ruthlessly efficient that the native population was viciously and cruelly exploited. Even in times of hardship the king’s taxes came first despite the fact that payment might mean starvation for the natives. To many Egyptians revolt or a life of brigandage was far better than working the land under the Ptolemies. Chapter Eleven: Etruscans- The Etruscans were skillful metal workers, and they amassed extensive wealth by trading their manufactured goods in Italy and beyond. The strength of their political and military institutions enabled them to loosely organize league of cities whose dominion extended as far north as the Po valley and as far south as Latium and Campania. In Latium they founded cities and they took over control of Rome. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans promoted urban life, and one of the places that benefited from Etruscan influence was Rome. The Etruscans found the Romans settled on three of Rome’s seven hills. The site of the future Forum Roamanum, the famous Public Square and center of political life was originally the cemetery of the small community. Etruscan power and influence at Rome were so strong and important that Roman traditions preserved the memory of Etruscan kings who ruled the city. Under the Etruscans, Rome enjoyed contacts with the larger Mediterranean world, and the city began to grow. In the years 575 -550 BC, temples and public buildings began to grace the city. The Capitoline Hill became the religious center of the city when the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built there. The forum ceased to be a cemetery and started its history as a public meeting place. Metalwork became common and the wealthier classes began to import large numbers of fine Greek vases. The Etruscans had found Rome a collection of villages and had made of it a city. Punic Wars- Also called the First Carthaginian War it was the first of three wars between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian or Punic Empire that resulted in the destruction of Carthage. The first Punic was fought to establish control over the strategic islands of Corsica and Sicily. In 264 the Carthaginians intervened in a dispute between the two principal cities on the Sicilian west coast of Messana and Syracuse, and to establish a presence on the island. Rome responding to this challenge attacked Messana and forced the Carthaginians to withdraw. In 260 a Roman fleet failed to gain complete control of Sicily but opened the way to Corsica, from which the Carthaginians were expelled. A second Roman fleet ailed in 256 and established a beach head on the African continent. Carthage was prepared to surrender, but the terms offered by Rome were too severe, and in 255 Carthage attacked with a new army built around cavalry and elephants and drove the invaders to the sea. The battle for Sicily resumed in 254 but was a stalemate until 241 when a fleet of 200 warships gave the Romans undisputed control of the sea lanes and assured the collapse of the Punic stronghold in Sicily. One year later Carthage surrendered ceding Sicily and the Lipari Islands to Rome and agreeing to pay an indemnity. Julius Caesar- A Roman general and statesman and was known for conquering of Gaul, victor in the Civil war of 49-46 BC and dictator in 46-44 BC who launched a series of political and social reforms when he was assassinated by a group of nobles in the Senate House. A patrician by birth he became prosecuting advocate in Rome and was elected quaestor and curule aedile for 65. In 63 he was elected pontifex maximus and in 62 praetor. Caesar conquered Gaul in a number of campaigns between 58 and 50 and in 49 after being instructed by the Senate to lay down his command; he crossed the Rubicon signifying the beginning of the Roman civil war. He waged campaigns on several fronts, aided Cleopatra of Egypt and acquired the title of dictator. He was assassinated by a group of senatorial conspirators led by Cassius and Brutus. Augustus- Also known as Octavian was the first Roman emperor that introduced an autocratic regime known as the first citizen, and enabled him working through institutions that were republican in outward form to overhaul every aspect of Roman life and to bring stability and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world. One of the great administrative geniuses of history, he centralized the power of the Roman empire of his day in Rome itself and established the Pax Romana. He was born to a prosperous family and was named adoptive son and heir of Julius Caesar, his great uncle, at the age of 18. In the power struggle that followed Caesar’s death he became one of three that reconstituted the Roman state. After defeating Caesar’s assassins, Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, Octavian and Antony partitioned the empire with Octavian receiving the west as his portion. Octavian then overcame various rivals that included Lepidus and Antony and Cleopatra to become ruler of the Greco-Roman world and preserved the republican forms of government. Jesus of Nazareth- Jesus was born in a troubled time, when Roman rule aroused hatred and unrest among the Jews. This climat4e of hostility affected the lives of all who lived in Judaea, Roman and Jew alike. It forms the backdrop of Jesus’ life and it had a fundamental impact on his ministry. Without an understanding of this age of anxiety in Judaea, Jesus and early Christianity cannot properly be appreciated. The entry of Rome into Jewish affairs was certainly not peaceful. The civil wars that destroyed the republic wasted the prosperity of Judaea and the entire eastern Mediterranean world. Jewish leaders took sides in the fighting, and Judaea suffered its share of ravages and military confiscations. Peace brought little satisfaction to the Jews. Added to the horrors of civil war were years of crop failure, which caused famine and plague. As the ravages of war became ever more widespread and conditions worsened, more and more people prophesied the imminent coming of the Messiah. Into this climate of Roman severity, Zealotry and Messianic hope came Jesus of Nazareth. He was born in Galilee, the stronghold of the Zealots. Yet Jesus was a man of peace and his teachings were entirely and thoroughly Jewish. Paul of Tarsus- Christianity might have remained a purely Jewish sect had it not been for Paul of Tarsus. The conversion of Hellenized Jews and of Gentiles, non-Jews, to Christianity caused the sect grave problems. Were the Gentiles subject to the laws of Moses? If not, was Christianity to have two sets of laws? The answer to these questions was Paul’s momentous contribution to Christianity. Paul was unlike Jesus or Peter. Born in a thriving and busy city filled with Romans, Greeks, Jews, Syrians, and others, he was at home in the world of Greco-Roman culture. After his conversion to Christianity he taught that his native Judaism was the preparation for the Messiah, and that Jesus by his death and resurrection had fulfilled the prophecy of Judaism and initiated a new age. Paul said that Jesus was the Son of God, the beginning of a new law, and he preached that Jesus teachings were to be proclaimed to all people, whether Jew or Gentile. Chapter Twelve: Monsoon System- Has to do with trade and how trade is conducted in history. A monsoon is any major wind system that seasonally reverses its direction. One that blew for approximately six months from the northeast and six months from the southwest, the most prominent examples of the seasonal winds occur in southern Asia and in Africa. The primary cause of monsoons lies in the difference of the annual temperature trends over land and sea, though other factors may be involved as well. Constantine- In the final part of the third century A. D. the emperor Diocletian put an end to the period of turmoil. Repairing the damage done in the third century was the major wok of the emperor Constantine (306-337) in the fourth. But the price was high. Under Diocletian, Augustus’s polite fiction of the emperor as â€Å"first among equals† gave way to the emperor as absolute autocrat. The princes became lord. The emperor claimed that he was â€Å"the elect of god† and that he ruled because of god’s favor. In the fourth century, Constantine even claimed to be the equal of Jesus’ first twelve followers. To underline the emperor’s exalted position Diocletian and Constantine adopted the gaudy court ceremonies and trappings of the Persian Empire. People entering the emperor’s presence prostrated themselves before him and kissed the hem of his robes. Constantine went so far as to import Persian eunuchs to run the palace. The Roman emperor had become an oriental monarch. The most serious immediate matter confronting Diocletian and Constantine were economic, social and religious. They needed additional revenues to pay for the army and the imperial court. Yet the wars and the barbarian invasions had caused widespread destruction and poverty. The fighting had struck a serious blow to Roman agriculture, which the emperors tried to revive. In the religious sphere Christianity had become too strong either to ignore or to crush. How Diocletian, Constantine and their successors dealt with those problems helped create the economic and social patterns medieval Europe inherited. Attila the Hun- King of the Huns from 434 to 453 and ruled jointly with his elder brother Bleda until 445. He was one of the greatest of the barbarian rulers who assaulted the Roman Empire invading the southern Balkan provinces and Greece and then Gaul and Italy. From 435 to 439 the activities of Attila are unknown but he seems to have been engaged in subduing barbarian people to the north or east of his dominions. The Eastern Romans do not appear to have paid the sums stipulated in the treaty of Margus and so in 441 when their forces were occupied in the west and on the eastern frontier, Attila launched a heavy assault on the Danubian frontier of the Eastern Empire. He captured and ravaged a number of important cities. Attila’s movements after the conclusion of peace in the autumn are again unknown. About 445 he murdered his brother Bleda and ruled the Huns as an autocrat. He made a second attack after this on the Eastern Roman Empire, not much is written on this attack. Manichaeism- Was a dualistic religious movement founded in Persia in the 3rd century AD by Mani who was known as the Apostle of Light and supreme Illuminator. Although Manichaeism was long considered a Christian heresy, it was a religion in its own right, because of the coherence of its doctrines and the rigid ness of its structure and institutions preserved throughout its history a unity and unique character. Mani was born in southern Babylonia, now Iraq. With his annunciation at the age of 24 he obeyed a heavenly order to manifest himself publicly and to proclaim his doctrines. From that point on, Mani preached throughout the Persian Empire. At first unhindered, he later was opposed by the king, condemned and imprisoned. After 26 days of trials, which his followers called the Passion of the Illuminator or Mani’s crucifixion. Mani delivered a final message to his disciples and died.