PSSA Practice Grade 7 ELA Flashcard

PSSA Practice Grade 7 ELA

What Is a Good ACT Writing Score

What Is a Good ACT Writing Score SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips As you study for the ACT, it's easy enough to calculate your ACT composite target score. But where does your essay score fit into all this? What’s a good ACT Writing score? Read on to find out how to figure it out! feature image credit: Had a Good Boogie Lately? by Jocelyn Kinghorn, used under CC BY-SA 2.0/Cropped from original. How Do You Figure Out What’s a Good ACT Writing Score? A good essay score depends on what your goals are. These goals should be concrete and determined by the colleges you’re applying to. Find out more about why this is the only factor that truly matters in our article on what a good, bad, and excellent ACT score is. So how do you figure out your target ACT Writing Score? Step 0: Is ACT Writing Required? Especially now that the SAT essay is no longer mandatory, many schools have been reevaluating their stance on whether or not to require the ACT essay (since schools generally like to have a consistent standard across the two tests). Some colleges are ACT Writing-optional, while others don't consider it at all. Use our complete list of which schools require ACT Writing to figure out where the schools you're applying to stand on the issue. Step 1: Use Our Worksheet We've created a handy worksheet to help you figure out your target ACT score. For now we'll be adapting the worksheet to figure out what a good ACT Writing score is for you, although I definitely recommend also filling out a second sheet to figure out your target ACT composite score. Step 2: Fill In Your Schools On the worksheet, fill in the names of the schools you want to get into in the leftmost column. Include dream or â€Å"reach† schools, but don’t include â€Å"safety schools† (schools you think you have at least a 90% chance of getting into). Step 3: Get ACT Writing Score Data You can try to get the data from each school's admissions website, but this is time-consuming and not always successful, as admission sites aren't laid out in a particularly standardized way. The best source of data for ACT Writing scores is a school's Common Data Set, if the school chooses to publish it. The Common Data Set, or CDS, is a set of survey items that schools can choose to fill out and put online to give students information about the school in a standardized way. The CDS's section about First-Time, First-Year (Freshman) Admission may include information about students' 25th and 75th percentile scores on ACT Writing. It's not mandatory for schools to fill out the CDS, and even if they do, they don't have to fill out the information about ACT Writing, so you won't always find that information, but the CDS is the most up-to-date and reliable source for ACT Writing score information. A third option is to take to Google and search out other sources for this data; however, you should differentiate between this kind of unofficial information and official data released by the schools. Step 4: Average Both Columns Total up the 25th and 75th percentile scores, then find the average of each column. We recommended that you take the 75th percentile score as your target ACT Writing score since it will give you a very strong chance of getting into the schools you’ve listed. If you’re applying to humanities programs, you may even want to consider a higher target score for ACT Writing, as it may be used for placement in certain courses. A quick refresher on what percentile scores mean: 25th percentile means that 25 percent of the students attending have a score at or below that number (below average). The 75th percentile means that 75 percent of students have a score at or below that number (above average). For example, let's say that the 25th/75th percentile ACT Writing score range for Northwestern University is 7/10. If you score above the 75th percentile score (a 10), your Writing score will help your chances of admission; if you score below the 25th percentile (a 7-8), your Writing score might harm your chances of admission. What If There's No ACT Writing Score Data? Unfortunately, very few colleges actually release their ACT Writing score ranges. Rarely is the information easily accessible on the school websites (since admission sites have no standardized formats)- instead, you have to search for a school's most recent Common Data Set or rely on data provided by third parties. If there is no data for ACT Writing scores at all, you can take a look at the school's composite ACT score ranges to get a rough idea of where your ACT Writing score should be. Because it requires exceptional skill to get 6 in all domains (or a 12/12) on the ACT Writing, even the most competitive schools will accept a 9/12 on the essay (which puts you in the 95th percentile for ACT Writing), even if the school's ACT composite range is 32-35. We've created a chart below that compares percentiles for ACT composite scores and ACT Writing scores. You can use this chart to help you figure out roughly where your Writing score should fall, based on your composite score. Percentile Composite Score (1-36) Writing Score (2-12) 100 36 12 99 31-35 11 99 31-35 10 95 27-31 9 88 22-27 8 65 19-22 7 47 15-19 6 24 13-15 5 12 12-13 4 4 11-12 3 2 1-11 2 source: two different ACT.org pages As an example, Northwestern's 25/75 range for ACT composite scores is 32-34, so you should aim for an overall ACT Writing score of between 8 and 11 out of 12. In general, as long as your Writing score percentile is in the general ballpark (within 10-20 percentile points) of your composite score percentile, you'll be fine. Summary: How to Decide What a Good ACT Writing Score Is First, look up whether the schools you wish to apply to require ACT Writing scores. Next, figure out the ACT Writing score ranges of those schools that do require ACT Writing scores be submitted. To do this, you can: Check the school's admissions site or Common Data Set (if published) to see if there is data for ACT Writing, OR Estimate the Writing score range based on the school's ACT composite score range Then, sum up the ACT Writing score ranges for the 25th and 75th percentiles, average the 25th and 75th percentile scores, and choose a target ACT Writing score (75th percentile average score is recommended as a target). 3D Bullseye. Credit: StockMonkeys.com (used under CC BY 2.0) What’s Next? Now that you've stuck your toe in the waters of ACT Writing scoring, are you ready for more? Of course you are. Get into the depths of ACT Writing with this full analysis of the ACT essay grading rubric. Is a longer essay always better? Find out how essay length affects your ACT Writing score here. Completely confused about how the ACT Writing test is scored? You're not alone. Dispel your confusion with our complete guide to ACT essay scoring. Curious about where your ACT Writing score stands in comparison to everyone else? Find out what an average ACT Writing score is in this article. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by ACT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Nike Ethics Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nike Ethics - Case Study Example Hazardous in the sense, even if the workers had skin or breathing problems, they were not transferred to departments free of chemicals and the employees who dealt with dangerous chemicals were not provided protective masks or gloves. (Case). If the employees wanted any leave from work, they had to work extra time to finish all the allocated work, then, only they are allowed to go. Even children were involved, and â€Å"Air Jordans,† range of shoes were alleged to be put together by 11'year-olds in Indonesia making 14 cents per hour. So, all these ethical issues, featured in the case, gave a negative ethical image for Nike 2. These ethical issues are important The above mentioned ethical issues are important for Nike because unless they solve it successfully, whatever success it achieves, it will get diluted. Because in current times, the target customers, media, certain groups and even other business organizations will view an organization favourably and associate with it, onl y if the organization incorporates ethics in every aspect of their functioning. If they miss ethics and carry out certain unethical actions, negatively impacting human rights, labour rights and even child lights, those organizations will not only be abhorred by various target groups, but will also be punished by relevant authorities. With Nike also being accused of such ethical violations, it is crucial for it to focus on these issues and take corrective actions. 3) Ethical guidelines in Finance and its relation to Nike Ethical guidelines may differ according to the various industries and also based on their role, company size, type of financial transactions that are carried out, etc. When one focuses on the financial discipline or sector, there are also many ethical guidelines according to the type of organization, the role and job of financial professionals, etc. However, there are certain common ethical guidelines in the financial sector. For example, finance code of ethics aids organizations and its top management to avoid significant legal problems or regulatory fines. (Codjia). For that, the code of ethics stipulates that organizations should avoid activities, which can be considered as illegal and/or unprofessional. U.S. regulations require a public accountant to maintain ethical values including correct procedures, secrecy, correct valuation without any external influence, etc, when auditing a company listed on a securities exchange. (Codjia). Thus, the financial professionals shall under no circumstance succumb to the pressure of the management in reporting the actual facts. 4. Reasonable solutions to Nike’s ethical issues Nike faced ethical issues mainly in its management of employees in its manufacturing units in the Third World Countries. It did not face ethical issues in its financial management matters. Although, the ethical codes related to finance sector may not be correlated to Nike’s ethical issues, and also the solutions cannot be found, there are still some applications and solutions. The main finance code of ethics talks about avoiding significant legal problems or regulatory fines, and from that perspective, Nike should carry out ethical activities in its manufacturing unit, so that they do not elicit any fines from the host governments. In addition, Nike should avoid acti

Marketing Strrategy of Tourism Destination Coursework

Marketing Strrategy of Tourism Destination - Coursework Example The research is therefore subjective to interpretation, as it does not seek to explain how much money was (or will be) used, but the manner in which funds, policy, and rational marketing plans are being utilised by Beijing to promote economic wealth. The research approach is descriptive and based on the idea of a rational planning paradigm. It asks what Beijing's prior planning policies were, how these have changed, and what the future implications are. The research study utilises several schools of thought regarding marketing strategy to form the final conclusion that Beijing's marketing strategy has responded effectively to several marketing ideals. The results are the assurance of an environmentally conscious marketing plan has strong potential towards a global initiative of Beijing as a 'new' city with the foundation of historical regional culture. The final recommendation is for Beijing to establish their post-Olympic vision; maintain consistence in the application of resources; look for innovative ways to exceed the Olympic expectations. In 2001, after much debate and deliberation, the Beijing bid to host the 2008 Olympics was approved. ... The research study utilises several schools of thought regarding marketing strategy to form the final conclusion that Beijing's marketing strategy has responded effectively to several marketing ideals. The results are the assurance of an environmentally conscious marketing plan has strong potential towards a global initiative of Beijing as a 'new' city with the foundation of historical regional culture. The final recommendation is for Beijing to establish their post-Olympic vision; maintain consistence in the application of resources; look for innovative ways to exceed the Olympic expectations. Chapter 1 Introduction In 2001, after much debate and deliberation, the Beijing bid to host the 2008 Olympics was approved. While this sparked some controversy amongst several nations (United States and Taiwan) and human rights activists, the emergent marketing strategy Beijing utilized to promote its place as a world-leading, global technology, and environmentally sound nation has been nearly unparalleled by any other tourism marketing initiative. The municipal city government has allocated billions of funds, derived from public, corporate and private resources, to develop and implement an international marketing strategy. This strategy includes several dimensions that will likely have a permanent impact on the economic and political stages for Beijing. The following research paper explores these economic and political histories, resources, and strategies that existed prior to, and because of, the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The research first explores the background and history of Beijing, followed by an analysis of the current marketing strategy components. This is followed by a review of the

Localize your product to globalize your business

Localize your product to globalize your business LOCALIZE YOUR PRODUCT TO GLOBALIZE YOUR BUSINESS. OBJECTIVES:- Analyze how should be the Structure and Capacity of Firm to explore a localized product to global market Evaluate the Demand of the product in the particular country where the firm wants to explore. To Know the benefits from the global business that placing the placing the actual importance of a product. To Understand the Local and Global legal terms and conditions to access or for trading a product to global market. Analyzing the Local and global Market competitors and upcoming problems with similar products in Price, Reliability and quality. Critically analyze the Barriers to growth for small firms. 3. Context :- The main purpose to choose this topic because, as the Author is from a Business background family, owning a group called RGS GROUP FIRMS which deals with Manufacturing Micro nutrient and Fertilizers products with fully fledged and localized in the Indian Market, Author main aim is to Explore the Business which is presently in INDIA to other countries with help of there Localized products to global Market for which author is taking the help of this Dissertation. The intention of doing this study is to grab the information is how to launch a localized product outside the country and Author personal interest is to improve his business status to globe with the help of this research on above topic. Literature Review:- The literature review is focused in areas related to innovative product development for sustainable competitive advantage. The essentials for the product development would involve market segmentation, innovation, capacity of the firm, need for skill (Knowledge) and research and development to globalize a product. The literature review aims to conclude with a framework for business strategy intending to enhance product development. Some people are given a survey to complete to gauge their reaction on globalization of a localized product to other countries, who have placed different importance in there concepts. Which are as below. According to KENECHI OHMAE in his book THE NEXT GLOBAL STAGE published in 2005 he said that Effective communication always depend on the non existence of borders. It was one thing when communication was predominantly physical. If a person wanted to go from A to B or send something there, be it is a letter or product , the inter force of gravity often slowed the process down. Slowness of movement was futured added to by border checkpoints, the need for visas and passport control not to mention custom exercise inspection. People viewed these as obstacles and deterrents. Critical points in the process of Expansion of a Firm:- According to EDITH PENROSE in his book THE THEORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE FIRM, when a firm is relatively small the division of managerial labor will not be extensively and the most important decision are sometimes made by only one man. As the firm grows it reaches a point where a change in its managerial structure must take place because of the necessity, if growth is to continue of subdividing the managerial tasks and especially of decentralizing managerial decision making. The Small Firm and international Business Strategy decisions:- Market Entry:- Dawes (1995) acknowledges that for small business moving from the confines of a domestic market to market across national boundaries which may comprise one or more international markets can be a daunting prospect. He acknowledges that there are a number of reasons why companies do decide to internationalize their operations and the reasons are identified. Johnson and wiedersheim -Paul (1975), Bikey and Teaser (1977), Cavusgil (1980) and Czinkota (1982) all put forward export development models, discussed. Which they see as the export behaviour theories of small firms PRODUCT:-. The architecture of the product is defined not only by the decomposition of the complete product into elemental components, but also by the interaction between these components. The interactions, System architecture design principles suggest ways to plan architectures with minimal interactions across sub-systems, maximizing architecture interactions has been accomplished using matrix—based methods. Analysis such of such patterns may be used to suggest clusters forming effective product modules. (Alexander 1964). EXPORTING:- In its basic form exporting can be defined as selling goods or services from one country to another. There is distinction with in the exporting approach between an indirect handling of product and services involving export houses and joint marketing methods and direct handling of product and services agents and distributors. Indirect exporting of a product involves the use of intermediaries, usually in the firms own country and in response to requests for the firms product or services from abroad. For small firm with little experience if international business, this usually the beginning of a firms move to direct exporting. The handling of the export order may then be carried out by export houses whose business is handling or financing or international trade (Hibbert 1989). The houses provide a comprehensive export service which covers principal involvement in the export activities namely arranging the sale of the product or services and dealing with paperwork and administration. ENTRY ANALYSIS:- If the small firm is to approach exporting in an entry strategy basis the small firm will need to determine sales projections with the detailed costing information. The costing will need to cover existing operation in the business that will be involved in an exporting programme. The costing may well involve sensitivity analysis to determine effect on sale trends etc given specific scenarios Eg Currency fluctuations, (Chuck C Y Kwok 1987). MAKING GLOBAL PRODUCT:- Robin.K and Beebe.N in order to make products that appeal to customers in different parts of the world many companies are finding that they need to develop a deep under standing of consumers in the different parts of the world. (Robin.K and Beebe. N). GOING GLOBAL TO ADD CAPACITY TO A FIRM:- Perhaps the most common reason companies â€Å"go global† with product development to expand their capacity in other words , to add skill , Knowledge, expertise and the infrastructure that can help them develop more and better products. The following below are some of the Globalization strategy to shape the firm. Finding more skilled hands to do the routine work. Finding resources that can extend and complement your product development work. Increasing your access to special competencies. Acquiring special skills that out or in source vendors may do better than you. DECIDING WHERE TO GO WHEN YOU GO GLOBAL:- Most firms began to globalize their product development activities in order to exploit low cost suppliers or global markets. They stick with the globalization to reap the benefits of additional skills and capacities. (Robin.K and Beebe. N). Knowledge of the country and its international context:- (Thinking Globally and Managing globally) The implementation of localised management is dependent upon effective local knowledge. National geography and history, local political and economic management, technological development and socio cultural features. The international context within which the country may be placed; for instance: Whether the country is categorized as traditional or Third World; developing, or a lesser Developed Country (LDC), or industrialized. (Tony morden, (European Business Review). Standardizations and Product Category:- (Brand Globally but Advertise locally) Several of the reported empirical studies have noted that brand and advertising Standardization is a function of product category. Still and Hill (1984) found brand standardization in 76 percent of pharmaceutical products, but in only 60 percent of the food products. Boddewyn and Hansen (1976) found standardized branding practice to be highest for consumer durables. (Dennis M. Sandler and David Shani). Developing Local Product to a Global Market:- A firm can take advantage of large scale production and distribution and a global reputation yet successfully accommodate local market idiosyncrasies. The key to an effective marketing strategy is to understand and capitalize upon unique market characteristics of different cultures and sub-cultures. Successful development of international product and marketing strategies lies in being global and acting local. The proponents of global marketing strategy have displayed a strong insensitively to largely varying local needs, wants and behaviors. The implementation of being global and acting local begins with understanding consumer behaviors and at the macro level, international markets. (James Wills, A. Coskun Samll and Laurence Jacobs). Research in international new product development Current understanding and future imperatives:- This has been an observable trend that has posed both difficulties and opportunities for host of the business in both product manufacturing and service sectors. In the context of innovation and more specially, localized product development , organizations have had a grapple with more demanding regional and global customers and rising a level of international competition , suppliers and global customers and rising the level of international competition, suppliers and resource markets , Realistically firms that seek to excel cannot ignore these challenges. Instead they can ensure survival by capitalizing on internationalization opportunities. In order to create value for international or global customers need to formulate and implement appropriate product development strategies and process to meet the needs and demands of international markets. There is growing concern that strategies, structures and processes for developing and commercializing new technologies for domestic market may not be entirely suitable to meet the demands of the business serving international market.

Black People and James Baldwin Essay

A. The theme of Baldwin’s essay is equality. He establishes this theme in his essay with the juxtaposition of a poor white man and a black man. In this essay, Baldwin speaks of how â€Å"People are continually pointing out to me the wretchedness of white people in order to console me for the wretchedness of blacks. † He says that people say that being black is not that bad because there are white people in the same situation and that there is still hope for the black because of people like Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis but it is still not something â€Å"to be regarded with complacency† because the situations of Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis are just rare. Equality in America at the time was possible with â€Å"determined will,† but still very rare. Another way James Baldwin established the theme of equality in this essay was when he mentioned the projects, more specifically, Riverton. Baldwin establishes this theme of equality through mentioning Riverton for Riverton was a physical representation of the inequality of blacks and whites in America back then. Baldwin said, â€Å"The people in Harlem know they are living there because white people do not think they are good enough to live anywhere else. † There was going to be no equality if people were told to live in certain places because of their color. Baldwin also makes this theme extremely clear when he says, â€Å"Negroes want to be treated like men. † B. The tone of the essay, Fifth Avenue, Uptown: A letter from Harlem by James Baldwin and the tone of the poem, Theme for English B by Langston Hughes are similar. They are similar for both authors show that there is hope for equality through the tone of each text. In the poem, Theme for English B, Hughes says â€Å"You are white — / yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. / That’s American. † Hughes expresses that although he may be the only black person in his class, he is still American like the rest of the class and should be considered equal. The tone of the essay and poem is different from the poem Incident by Countee Collen. This poem’s tone is complete opposite from the other poem and essay for Collen uses more of a doubtful tone. This poem is more about just being sad and bothered that blacks and whites are not equal instead of being hopeful for the equality of the two races that is soon to come like the other poem and essay. C. The perspectives on race in these texts are different than in To Kill a Mockingbird for in To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus believes that there is good and bad in everyone and that nobody should be hated or claimed as all bad. In the book, Scout asks Atticus if it is okay to hate Hitler but Atticus says that you shouldn’t hate anybody, no matter how bad they are because there is a good side to them. This shows that Atticus’ perspective on race is different from the authors of the poems and essay for the authors believe that the whites are bad people because blacks and whites are not equal. While Atticus is just like the authors for he wants equality between black and whites, his perspective is different for he believes that this equality will be brought once the good side comes out of the white people.

The Source of Creativity in Writers

We laymen have always been intensely curious to know like the Cardinal who put a similar question to Ariosto – from what sources that strange being, the creative writer, draws his material, and how he manages to make such an impression on us with it and to arouse in us emotions of which, perhaps, we had not even thought ourselves capable.Our interest is only heightened the more by the fact that, if we ask him, the writer himself gives us no explanation, or none that is satisfactory; and it is not at all weakened by our knowledge that not even the clearest insight into the determinants of his choice of material and into the nature of the art of creating imaginative form will ever help to make creative writers of us. If we could at least discover in ourselves or in people like ourselves an activity which was in some way akin to creative writing!An examination of it would then give us a hope of obtaining the beginnings of an explanation of the creative work of writers. And, indee d, there is some prospect of this being possible. After all, creative writers themselves like to lessen the distance between their kind and the common run of humanity; they so often assure us that every man is a poet at heart and that the last poet will not perish till the last man does. Should we not look for the first traces of imaginative activity as early as in childhood The child’s best-loved and most intense occupation is with his play or games.Might we not say that every child at play behaves like a creative writer, in that he creates a world of his own, or, rather, re-arranges the things of his world in a new way which pleases him? It would be wrong to think he does not take that world seriously; on the contrary, he takes his play very seriously and he expends large amounts of emotion on it. The opposite of play is not what is serious but what is real. In spite of all the emotion with which he cathects his world of play, the child distinguishes it quite well from real ity; and he likes to link his imagined objects and situations to the tangible and visible things of the real world.This linking is all that differentiates the child’s ‘play’ from ‘phantasying’. The creative writer does the same as the child at play. He creates a world of phantasy which he takes very seriously – that is, which he invests with large amounts of emotion while separating it sharply from reality. Language has preserved this relationship between children’s play and poetic creation. It gives [in German] the name of ‘Spiel’ [‘play’] to those forms of imaginative writing which require to be linked to tangible objects and which are capable of representation.It speaks of a ‘Lustspiel’ or ‘Trauerspiel’ [‘comedy’ or ‘tragedy’: literally, ‘pleasure play’ or ‘mourning play’] and describes those who carry out the representation as â⠂¬ËœSchauspieler’ [‘players’: literally ‘show-players’]. The unreality of the writer’s imaginative world, however, has very important consequences for the technique of his art; for many things which, if they were real, could give no enjoyment, can do so in the play of phantasy, and many excitements which, in themselves, are actually distressing, can become a source of pleasure for the hearers and spectators at the performance of a writer’s work.There is another consideration for the sake of which we will dwell a moment longer on this contrast between reality and play. When the child has grown up and has ceased to play, and after he has been labouring for decades to envisage the realities of life with proper seriousness, he may one day find himself in a mental situation which once more undoes the contrast between play and reality.As an adult he can look back on the intense seriousness with which he once carried on his games in childhood; and, by equating his ostensibly serious occupations of to-day with his childhood games, he can throw off the too heavy burden imposed on him by life and win the high yield of pleasure afforded by humour. As people grow up, then, they cease to play, and they seem to give up the yield of pleasure which they gained from playing. But whoever understands the human mind knows that hardly anything is harder for a man than to give up a pleasure which he has once experienced.Actually, we can never give anything up; we only exchange one thing for another. What appears to be a renunciation is really the formation of a substitute or surrogate. In the same way, the growing child, when he stops playing, gives up nothing but the link with real objects; instead playing, he now phantasies. He builds castles in the air and creates what are called day- dreams. I believe that most people construct phantasies at times in their lives. This is a fact which has long been overlooked and whose importance ha s therefore not been sufficiently appreciated.People’s phantasies are less easy to observe than the play of children. The child, it is true, plays by himself or forms a closed psychical system with other children for the purposes of a game; but even though he may not play his game in front of the grown-ups, he does not, on the other hand, conceal it from them. The adult, on the contrary, is ashamed of his phantasies and hides them from other people. He cherishes his phantasies as his most intimate possessions, and as a rule he would rather confess his misdeeds than tell anyone his phantasies.It may come about that for that reason he believes he is the only person who invents such phantasies and has no idea that creations of this kind are widespread among other people. This difference in the behaviour of a person who plays and a person who phantasies is accounted for by the motives of these two activities, which are nevertheless adjuncts to each other. A child’s play is determined by wishes: in point of fact by a single wish-one that helps in his upbringing – the wish to be big and grown up. He is always playing at being ‘grown up’, and in his games he imitates what he knows about the lives of his elders.He has no reason to conceal this wish. With the adult, the case is different. On the one hand, he knows that he is expected not to go on playing or phantasying any longer, but to act in the real world; on the other hand, some of the wishes which give rise to his phantasies are of a kind which it is essential to conceal. Thus he is ashamed of his phantasies as being childish and as being unpermissible. But, you will ask, if people make such a mystery of their phantasying, how is it that we know such a lot about it?Well, there is a class of human beings upon whom, not a god, indeed, but a stern goddess – Necessity – has allotted the task of telling what they suffer and what things give them happiness. These are the victims of nervous illness, who are obliged to tell their phantasies, among other things, to the doctor by whom they expect to be cured by mental treatment. This is our best source of knowledge, and we have since found good reason to suppose that our patients tell us nothing that we might not also hear from healthy people. Let us now make ourselves acquainted with a few of the characteristics of phantasying.We may lay it down that a happy person never phantasies, only an unsatisfied one. The motive forces of phantasies are unsatisfied wishes, and every single phantasy is the fulfilment of a wish, a correction of unsatisfying reality. These motivating wishes vary according to the sex, character and circumstances of the person who is having the phantasy; but they fall naturally into two main groups. They are either ambitious wishes, which serve to elevate the subject’s personality; or they are erotic ones. In young women the erotic wishes predominate almost exclusively, for the ir ambition is as a rule absorbed by erotic trends.In young men egoistic and ambitious wishes come to the fore clearly enough alongside of erotic ones. But we will not lay stress on the opposition between the two trends; we would rather emphasize the fact that they are often united. Just as, in many altar- pieces, the portrait of the donor is to be seen in a corner of the picture, so, in the majority of ambitious phantasies, we can discover in some corner or other the lady for whom the creator of the phantasy performs all his heroic deeds and at whose feet all his triumphs are laid.Here, as you see, there are strong enough motives for concealment; the well-brought-up young woman is only allowed a minimum of erotic desire, and the young man has to learn to suppress the excess of self-regard which he brings with him from the spoilt days of his childhood, so that he may find his place in a society which is full of other individuals making equally strong demands. We must not suppose tha t the products of this imaginative activity – the various phantasies, castles in the air and day-dreams – are stereotyped or unalterable.On the contrary, they fit themselves in to the subject’s shifting impressions of life, change with every change in his situation, and receive from every fresh active impression what might be called a ‘date-mark’. The relation of a phantasy to time is in general very important. We may say that it hovers, as it were, between three times – the three moments of time which our ideation involves. Mental work is linked to some current impression, some provoking occasion in the present which has been able to arouse one of the subject’s major wishes.From there it harks back to a memory of an earlier experience (usually an infantile one) in which this wish was fulfilled; and it now creates a situation relating to the future which represents a fulfilment of the wish. What it thus creates is a day-dream or phanta sy, which carries about it traces of its origin from the occasion which provoked it and from the memory. Thus past, present and future are strung together, as it were, on the thread of the wish that runs through them. A very ordinary example may serve to make what I have said clear.Let us take the case of a poor orphan boy to whom you have given the address of some employer where he may perhaps find a job. On his way there he may indulge in a day-dream appropriate to the situation from which it arises. The content of his phantasy will perhaps be something like this. He is given a job, finds favour with his new employer, makes himself indispensable in the business, is taken into his employer’s family, marries the charming young daughter of the house, and then himself becomes a director of the business, first as his employer’s partner and then as his successor.In this phantasy, the dreamer has regained what he possessed in his happy childhood – the protecting hous e, the loving parents and the first objects of his affectionate feelings. You will see from this example the way in which the wish makes use of an occasion in the present to construct, on the pattern of the past, a picture of the future. There is a great deal more that could be said about phantasies; but I will only allude as briefly as possible to certain points.If phantasies become over-luxuriant and over-powerful, the conditions are laid for an onset of neurosis or psychosis. Phantasies, moreover, are the immediate mental precursors of the distressing symptoms complained of by our patients. Here a broad by-path branches off into pathology. I cannot pass over the relation of phantasies to dreams. Our dreams at night are nothing else than phantasies like these, as we can demonstrate from the interpretation of dreams.Language, in its unrivalled wisdom, long ago decided the question of the essential nature of dreams by giving the name of ‘day-dreams’ to the airy creation s of phantasy. If the meaning of our dreams usually remains obscure to us in spite of this pointer, it is because of the circumstance that at night there also arise in us wishes of which we are ashamed; these we must conceal from ourselves, and they have consequently been repressed, pushed into the unconscious.Repressed wishes of this sort and their derivatives are only allowed to come to expression in a very distorted form. When scientific work had succeeded in elucidating this factor of dream-distortion, it was no longer difficult to recognize that night-dreams are wish-fulfilments in just the same way as day-dreams – the phantasies which we all know so well.  ¹ Cf. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a).So much for phantasies. And now for the creative writer. May we really attempt to compare the imaginative writer with the ‘dreamer in broad daylight’, and his creations with day-dreams? Here we must begin by making an initial distinction. We must separat e writers who, like the ancient authors of epics and tragedies, take over their material ready-made, from writers who seem to originate their own material.We will keep to the latter kind, and, for the purposes of our comparison, we will choose not the writers most highly esteemed by the critics, but the less pretentious authors of novels, romances and short stories, who nevertheless have the widest and most eager circle of readers of both sexes. One feature above all cannot fail to strike us about the creations of these story-writers: each of them has a hero who is the centre of interest, for whom the writer tries to win our sympathy by every possible means and whom he seems to place under the protection of a special Providence.If, at the end of one chapter of my story, I leave the hero unconscious and bleeding from severe wounds, I am sure to find him at the beginning of the next being carefully nursed and on the way to recovery; and if the first volume closes with the ship he is i n going down in a storm at sea, I am certain, at the opening of the second volume, to read of his miraculous rescue – a rescue without which the story could not proceed.The feeling of security with which I follow the hero through his perilous adventures is the same as the feeling with which a hero in real life throws himself into the water to save a drowning man or exposes himself to the enemy’s fire in order to storm a battery. It is the true heroic feeling, which one of our best writers has expressed in an inimitable phrase: ‘Nothing can happen to me! ’ It seems to me, however, that through this revealing characteristic of invulnerability we can immediately recognize His Majesty the Ego, the hero alike of every day-dream and of every story.Other typical features of these egocentric stories point to the same kinship. The fact that all the women in the novel invariably fall in love with the hero can hardly be looked on as a portrayal of reality, but it is easily understood as a necessary constituent of a day-dream. The same is true of the fact that the other characters in the story are sharply divided into good and bad, in defiance of the variety of human characters that are to be observed in real life.The ‘good’ ones are the helpers, while the ‘bad’ ones are the enemies and rivals, of the ego which has become the hero of the story. We are perfectly aware that very many imaginative writings are far removed from the model of the naà ¯ve day-dream; and yet I cannot suppress the suspicion that even the most extreme deviations from that model could be linked with it through an uninterrupted series of transitional cases. It has struck me that in many of what are known as ‘psychological’ novels only one person – once again the hero – is described from within.The author sits inside his mind, as it were, and looks at the other characters from outside. The psychological novel in general no doubt owes its special nature to the inclination of the modern writer to split up his ego, by self- observation, into many part-egos, and, in consequence, to personify the conflicting currents of his own mental life in several heroes. Certain novels, which might be described as ‘eccentric’, seem to stand in quite special contrast to the type of the day-dream.In these, the person who is introduced as the hero plays only a very small active part; he sees the actions and sufferings of other people pass before him like a spectator. Many of Zola’s later works belong to this category. But I must point out that the psychological analysis of individuals who are not creative writers, and who diverge in some respects from the so-called norm, has shown us analogous variations of the day-dream, in which the ego contents itself with the role of spectator.If our comparison of the imaginative writer with the day-dreamer, and of poetical creation with the day-dream, is to be of any value, it must, above all, show itself in some way or other fruitful. Let us, for instance, try to apply to these authors’ works the thesis we laid down earlier concerning the relation between phantasy and the three periods of time and the wish which runs through them; and, with its help, let us try to study the connections that exist between the life of the writer and his works.No one has known, as a rule, what expectations to frame in approaching this problem; and often the connection has been thought of in much too simple terms. In the light of the insight we have gained from phantasies, we ought to expect the following state of affairs. A strong experience in the present awakens in the creative writer a memory of an earlier experience (usually belonging to his childhood) from which there now proceeds a wish which finds its fulfilment in the creative work.The work itself exhibits elements of the recent provoking occasion as well as of the old memory. Do not be alarmed at the complexity of this formula. I suspect that in fact it will prove to be too exiguous a pattern. Nevertheless, it may contain a first approach to the true state of affairs; and, from some experiments I have made, I am inclined to think that this way of looking at creative writings may turn out not unfruitful.You will not forget that the  stress it lays on childhood memories in the writer’s life – a stress which may perhaps seem puzzling – is ultimately derived from the assumption that a piece of creative writing, like a day-dream, is a continuation of, and a substitute for, what was once the play of childhood. We must not neglect, however, to go back to the kind of imaginative works which we have to recognize, not as original creations, but as the re-fashioning of ready- made and familiar material.Even here, the writer keeps a certain amount of independence, which can express itself in the choice of material and in changes in it which are often quite ext ensive. In so far as the material is already at hand, however, it is derived from the popular treasure-house of myths, legends and fairy tales. The study of constructions of folk-psychology such as these is far from being complete, but it is extremely probable that myths, for instance, are distorted vestiges of the wishful phantasies of whole nations, the secular dreams of youthful humanity.You will say that, although I have put the creative writer first in the title of my paper, I have told you far less about him than about phantasies. I am aware of that, and I must try to excuse it by pointing to the present state of our knowledge. All I have been able to do is to throw out some encouragements and suggestions which, starting from the study of phantasies, lead on to the problem of the writer’s choice of his literary material.As for the other problem – by what means the creative writer achieves the emotional effects in us that are aroused by his creations – we h ave as yet not touched on it at all. But I should like at least to point out to you the path that leads from our discussion of phantasies to the problems of poetical effects. You will remember how I have said that the day-dreamer carefully conceals his phantasies from other people because he feels he has reasons for being ashamed of them. I should now add that even if he were to communicate them to us he could give us no pleasure by his disclosures.Such phantasies, when we learn them, repel us or at least leave us cold. But when a creative writer presents his plays to us or tells us what we are inclined to take to be his personal day dreams, we experience a great pleasure, and one which probably arises from the confluence of many sources. How the writer accomplishes this is his innermost secret; the essential ars poetica lies in the technique of overcoming the feeling of repulsion in us which is undoubtedly connected with the barriers that rise  between each single ego and the oth ers.We can guess two of the methods used by this technique. The writer softens the character of his egoistic day-dreams by altering and disguising it, and he bribes us by the purely formal – that is, aesthetic – yield of pleasure which he offers us in the presentation of his phantasies. We give the name of an incentive bonus, or a fore-pleasure, to a yield of pleasure such as this, which is offered to us so as to make possible the release of still greater pleasure arising from deeper psychical sources.In my opinion, all the aesthetic pleasure which a creative writer affords us has the character of a fore-pleasure of this kind, and our actual enjoyment of an imaginative work proceeds from a liberation of tensions in our minds. It may even be that not a little of this effect is due to the writer’s enabling us thenceforward to enjoy our own day-dreams without self-reproach or shame. This brings us to the threshold of new, interesting and complicated enquiries; but also, at least for the moment, to the end of our discussion. The Source of Creativity in Writers We laymen have always been intensely curious to know like the Cardinal who put a similar question to Ariosto – from what sources that strange being, the creative writer, draws his material, and how he manages to make such an impression on us with it and to arouse in us emotions of which, perhaps, we had not even thought ourselves capable.Our interest is only heightened the more by the fact that, if we ask him, the writer himself gives us no explanation, or none that is satisfactory; and it is not at all weakened by our knowledge that not even the clearest insight into the determinants of his choice of material and into the nature of the art of creating imaginative form will ever help to make creative writers of us. If we could at least discover in ourselves or in people like ourselves an activity which was in some way akin to creative writing!An examination of it would then give us a hope of obtaining the beginnings of an explanation of the creative work of writers. And, indee d, there is some prospect of this being possible. After all, creative writers themselves like to lessen the distance between their kind and the common run of humanity; they so often assure us that every man is a poet at heart and that the last poet will not perish till the last man does. Should we not look for the first traces of imaginative activity as early as in childhood The child’s best-loved and most intense occupation is with his play or games.Might we not say that every child at play behaves like a creative writer, in that he creates a world of his own, or, rather, re-arranges the things of his world in a new way which pleases him? It would be wrong to think he does not take that world seriously; on the contrary, he takes his play very seriously and he expends large amounts of emotion on it. The opposite of play is not what is serious but what is real. In spite of all the emotion with which he cathects his world of play, the child distinguishes it quite well from real ity; and he likes to link his imagined objects and situations to the tangible and visible things of the real world.This linking is all that differentiates the child’s ‘play’ from ‘phantasying’. The creative writer does the same as the child at play. He creates a world of phantasy which he takes very seriously – that is, which he invests with large amounts of emotion while separating it sharply from reality. Language has preserved this relationship between children’s play and poetic creation. It gives [in German] the name of ‘Spiel’ [‘play’] to those forms of imaginative writing which require to be linked to tangible objects and which are capable of representation.It speaks of a ‘Lustspiel’ or ‘Trauerspiel’ [‘comedy’ or ‘tragedy’: literally, ‘pleasure play’ or ‘mourning play’] and describes those who carry out the representation as â⠂¬ËœSchauspieler’ [‘players’: literally ‘show-players’]. The unreality of the writer’s imaginative world, however, has very important consequences for the technique of his art; for many things which, if they were real, could give no enjoyment, can do so in the play of phantasy, and many excitements which, in themselves, are actually distressing, can become a source of pleasure for the hearers and spectators at the performance of a writer’s work.There is another consideration for the sake of which we will dwell a moment longer on this contrast between reality and play. When the child has grown up and has ceased to play, and after he has been labouring for decades to envisage the realities of life with proper seriousness, he may one day find himself in a mental situation which once more undoes the contrast between play and reality.As an adult he can look back on the intense seriousness with which he once carried on his games in childhood; and, by equating his ostensibly serious occupations of to-day with his childhood games, he can throw off the too heavy burden imposed on him by life and win the high yield of pleasure afforded by humour. As people grow up, then, they cease to play, and they seem to give up the yield of pleasure which they gained from playing. But whoever understands the human mind knows that hardly anything is harder for a man than to give up a pleasure which he has once experienced.Actually, we can never give anything up; we only exchange one thing for another. What appears to be a renunciation is really the formation of a substitute or surrogate. In the same way, the growing child, when he stops playing, gives up nothing but the link with real objects; instead playing, he now phantasies. He builds castles in the air and creates what are called day- dreams. I believe that most people construct phantasies at times in their lives. This is a fact which has long been overlooked and whose importance ha s therefore not been sufficiently appreciated.People’s phantasies are less easy to observe than the play of children. The child, it is true, plays by himself or forms a closed psychical system with other children for the purposes of a game; but even though he may not play his game in front of the grown-ups, he does not, on the other hand, conceal it from them. The adult, on the contrary, is ashamed of his phantasies and hides them from other people. He cherishes his phantasies as his most intimate possessions, and as a rule he would rather confess his misdeeds than tell anyone his phantasies.It may come about that for that reason he believes he is the only person who invents such phantasies and has no idea that creations of this kind are widespread among other people. This difference in the behaviour of a person who plays and a person who phantasies is accounted for by the motives of these two activities, which are nevertheless adjuncts to each other. A child’s play is determined by wishes: in point of fact by a single wish-one that helps in his upbringing – the wish to be big and grown up. He is always playing at being ‘grown up’, and in his games he imitates what he knows about the lives of his elders.He has no reason to conceal this wish. With the adult, the case is different. On the one hand, he knows that he is expected not to go on playing or phantasying any longer, but to act in the real world; on the other hand, some of the wishes which give rise to his phantasies are of a kind which it is essential to conceal. Thus he is ashamed of his phantasies as being childish and as being unpermissible. But, you will ask, if people make such a mystery of their phantasying, how is it that we know such a lot about it?Well, there is a class of human beings upon whom, not a god, indeed, but a stern goddess – Necessity – has allotted the task of telling what they suffer and what things give them happiness. These are the victims of nervous illness, who are obliged to tell their phantasies, among other things, to the doctor by whom they expect to be cured by mental treatment. This is our best source of knowledge, and we have since found good reason to suppose that our patients tell us nothing that we might not also hear from healthy people. Let us now make ourselves acquainted with a few of the characteristics of phantasying.We may lay it down that a happy person never phantasies, only an unsatisfied one. The motive forces of phantasies are unsatisfied wishes, and every single phantasy is the fulfilment of a wish, a correction of unsatisfying reality. These motivating wishes vary according to the sex, character and circumstances of the person who is having the phantasy; but they fall naturally into two main groups. They are either ambitious wishes, which serve to elevate the subject’s personality; or they are erotic ones. In young women the erotic wishes predominate almost exclusively, for the ir ambition is as a rule absorbed by erotic trends.In young men egoistic and ambitious wishes come to the fore clearly enough alongside of erotic ones. But we will not lay stress on the opposition between the two trends; we would rather emphasize the fact that they are often united. Just as, in many altar- pieces, the portrait of the donor is to be seen in a corner of the picture, so, in the majority of ambitious phantasies, we can discover in some corner or other the lady for whom the creator of the phantasy performs all his heroic deeds and at whose feet all his triumphs are laid.Here, as you see, there are strong enough motives for concealment; the well-brought-up young woman is only allowed a minimum of erotic desire, and the young man has to learn to suppress the excess of self-regard which he brings with him from the spoilt days of his childhood, so that he may find his place in a society which is full of other individuals making equally strong demands. We must not suppose tha t the products of this imaginative activity – the various phantasies, castles in the air and day-dreams – are stereotyped or unalterable.On the contrary, they fit themselves in to the subject’s shifting impressions of life, change with every change in his situation, and receive from every fresh active impression what might be called a ‘date-mark’. The relation of a phantasy to time is in general very important. We may say that it hovers, as it were, between three times – the three moments of time which our ideation involves. Mental work is linked to some current impression, some provoking occasion in the present which has been able to arouse one of the subject’s major wishes.From there it harks back to a memory of an earlier experience (usually an infantile one) in which this wish was fulfilled; and it now creates a situation relating to the future which represents a fulfilment of the wish. What it thus creates is a day-dream or phanta sy, which carries about it traces of its origin from the occasion which provoked it and from the memory. Thus past, present and future are strung together, as it were, on the thread of the wish that runs through them. A very ordinary example may serve to make what I have said clear.Let us take the case of a poor orphan boy to whom you have given the address of some employer where he may perhaps find a job. On his way there he may indulge in a day-dream appropriate to the situation from which it arises. The content of his phantasy will perhaps be something like this. He is given a job, finds favour with his new employer, makes himself indispensable in the business, is taken into his employer’s family, marries the charming young daughter of the house, and then himself becomes a director of the business, first as his employer’s partner and then as his successor.In this phantasy, the dreamer has regained what he possessed in his happy childhood – the protecting hous e, the loving parents and the first objects of his affectionate feelings. You will see from this example the way in which the wish makes use of an occasion in the present to construct, on the pattern of the past, a picture of the future. There is a great deal more that could be said about phantasies; but I will only allude as briefly as possible to certain points.If phantasies become over-luxuriant and over-powerful, the conditions are laid for an onset of neurosis or psychosis. Phantasies, moreover, are the immediate mental precursors of the distressing symptoms complained of by our patients. Here a broad by-path branches off into pathology. I cannot pass over the relation of phantasies to dreams. Our dreams at night are nothing else than phantasies like these, as we can demonstrate from the interpretation of dreams.? Language, in its unrivalled wisdom, long ago decided the question of the essential nature of dreams by giving the name of ‘day-dreams’ to the airy creati ons of phantasy. If the meaning of our dreams usually remains obscure to us in spite of this pointer, it is because of the circumstance that at night there also arise in us wishes of which we are ashamed; these we must conceal from ourselves, and they have consequently been repressed, pushed into the unconscious.Repressed wishes of this sort and their derivatives are only allowed to come to expression in a very distorted form. When scientific work had succeeded in elucidating this factor of dream-distortion, it was no longer difficult to recognize that night-dreams are wish-fulfilments in just the same way as day-dreams – the phantasies which we all know so well. ? Cf. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a).So much for phantasies. And now for the creative writer. May we really attempt to compare the imaginative writer with the ‘dreamer in broad daylight’, and his creations with day-dreams? Here we must begin by making an initial distinction. We must separate writers who, like the ancient authors of epics and tragedies, take over their material ready-made, from writers who seem to originate their own material.We will keep to the latter kind, and, for the purposes of our comparison, we will choose not the writers most highly esteemed by the critics, but the less pretentious authors of novels, romances and short stories, who nevertheless have the widest and most eager circle of readers of both sexes. One feature above all cannot fail to strike us about the creations of these story-writers: each of them has a hero who is the centre of interest, for whom the writer tries to win our sympathy by every possible means and whom he seems to place under the protection of a special Providence.If, at the end of one chapter of my story, I leave the hero unconscious and bleeding from severe wounds, I am sure to find him at the beginning of the next being carefully nursed and on the way to recovery; and if the first volume closes with the ship he is in going down in a storm at sea, I am certain, at the opening of the second volume, to read of his miraculous rescue – a rescue without which the story could not proceed.The feeling of security with which I follow the hero through his perilous adventures is the same as the feeling with which a hero in real life throws himself into the water to save a drowning man or exposes himself to the enemy’s fire in order to storm a battery. It is the true heroic feeling, which one of our best writers has expressed in an inimitable phrase: ‘Nothing can happen to me! ’ It seems to me, however, that through this revealing characteristic of invulnerability we can immediately recognize His Majesty the Ego, the hero alike of every day-dream and of every story.Other typical features of these egocentric stories point to the same kinship. The fact that all the women in the novel invariably fall in love with the hero can hardly be looked on as a portrayal of reality, but it is e asily understood as a necessary constituent of a day-dream. The same is true of the fact that the other characters in the story are sharply divided into good and bad, in defiance of the variety of human characters that are to be observed in real life.The ‘good’ ones are the helpers, while the ‘bad’ ones are the enemies and rivals, of the ego which has become the hero of the story. We are perfectly aware that very many imaginative writings are far removed from the model of the naive day-dream; and yet I cannot suppress the suspicion that even the most extreme deviations from that model could be linked with it through an uninterrupted series of transitional cases. It has struck me that in many of what are known as ‘psychological’ novels only one person – once again the hero – is described from within.The author sits inside his mind, as it were, and looks at the other characters from outside. The psychological novel in general no dou bt owes its special nature to the inclination of the modern writer to split up his ego, by self- observation, into many part-egos, and, in consequence, to personify the conflicting currents of his own mental life in several heroes. Certain novels, which might be described as ‘eccentric’, seem to stand in quite special contrast to the type of the day-dream.In these, the person who is introduced as the hero plays only a very small active part; he sees the actions and sufferings of other people pass before him like a spectator. Many of Zola’s later works belong to this category. But I must point out that the psychological analysis of individuals who are not creative writers, and who diverge in some respects from the so-called norm, has shown us analogous variations of the day-dream, in which the ego contents itself with the role of spectator.If our comparison of the imaginative writer with the day-dreamer, and of poetical creation with the day-dream, is to be of any value, it must, above all, show itself in some way or other fruitful. Let us, for instance, try to apply to these authors’ works the thesis we laid down earlier concerning the relation between phantasy and the three periods of time and the wish which runs through them; and, with its help, let us try to study the connections that exist between the life of the writer and his works.No one has known, as a rule, what expectations to frame in approaching this problem; and often the connection has been thought of in much too simple terms. In the light of the insight we have gained from phantasies, we ought to expect the following state of affairs. A strong experience in the present awakens in the creative writer a memory of an earlier experience (usually belonging to his childhood) from which there now proceeds a wish which finds its fulfilment in the creative work.The work itself exhibits elements of the recent provoking occasion as well as of the old memory. Do not be alarmed at the complexity of this formula. I suspect that in fact it will prove to be too exiguous a pattern. Nevertheless, it may contain a first approach to the true state of affairs; and, from some experiments I have made, I am inclined to think that this way of looking at creative writings may turn out not unfruitful.You will not forget that the  stress it lays on childhood memories in the writer’s life – a stress which may perhaps seem puzzling – is ultimately derived from the assumption that a piece of creative writing, like a day-dream, is a continuation of, and a substitute for, what was once the play of childhood. We must not neglect, however, to go back to the kind of imaginative works which we have to recognize, not as original creations, but as the re-fashioning of ready- made and familiar material.Even here, the writer keeps a certain amount of independence, which can express itself in the choice of material and in changes in it which are often quite extensi ve. In so far as the material is already at hand, however, it is derived from the popular treasure-house of myths, legends and fairy tales. The study of constructions of folk-psychology such as these is far from being complete, but it is extremely probable that myths, for instance, are distorted vestiges of the wishful phantasies of whole nations, the secular dreams of youthful humanity.You will say that, although I have put the creative writer first in the title of my paper, I have told you far less about him than about phantasies. I am aware of that, and I must try to excuse it by pointing to the present state of our knowledge. All I have been able to do is to throw out some encouragements and suggestions which, starting from the study of phantasies, lead on to the problem of the writer’s choice of his literary material.As for the other problem – by what means the creative writer achieves the emotional effects in us that are aroused by his creations – we have as yet not touched on it at all. But I should like at least to point out to you the path that leads from our discussion of phantasies to the problems of poetical effects. You will remember how I have said that the day-dreamer carefully conceals his phantasies from other people because he feels he has reasons for being ashamed of them. I should now add that even if he were to communicate them to us he could give us no pleasure by his disclosures.Such phantasies, when we learn them, repel us or at least leave us cold. But when a creative writer presents his plays to us or tells us what we are inclined to take to be his personal day dreams, we experience a great pleasure, and one which probably arises from the confluence of many sources. How the writer accomplishes this is his innermost secret; the essential ars poetica lies in the technique of overcoming the feeling of repulsion in us which is undoubtedly connected with the barriers that rise  between each single ego and the others. We can guess two of the methods used by this technique. The writer softens the character of his egoistic day-dreams by altering and disguising it, and he bribes us by the purely formal – that is, aesthetic – yield of pleasure which he offers us in the presentation of his phantasies. We give the name of an incentive bonus, or a fore-pleasure, to a yield of pleasure such as this, which is offered to us so as to make possible the release of still greater pleasure arising from deeper psychical sources.In my opinion, all the aesthetic pleasure which a creative writer affords us has the character of a fore-pleasure of this kind, and our actual enjoyment of an imaginative work proceeds from a liberation of tensions in our minds. It may even be that not a little of this effect is due to the writer’s enabling us thenceforward to enjoy our own day-dreams without self-reproach or shame. This brings us to the threshold of new, interesting and complicated enquiries; but also , at least for the moment, to the end of our discussion.